Heat Exchangers. Volume III: Operation, Performance, and Maintenance

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Preface
	Introduction
	Chapter Summaries
	Disclaimer
Acknowledgments
About the Author
1 Flow-Induced Vibration of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers
	1.1 Principles of Flow-Induced Vibration
		1.1.1 Principles of Flow-Induced Vibration
		1.1.2 Flow-Induced Vibration Mechanisms
		1.1.3 Most Probable Regions of Tube Failure
		1.1.4 Tube Failure Mechanisms
		1.1.5 Possible Damaging Effects of FIV On Heat Exchangers
		1.1.6 Tube Response Curve
		1.1.7 Dynamical Behavior of Tube Arrays in Crossflow
		1.1.8 Hydrodynamic Forces
		1.1.9 FIV Mechanisms Versus Flow Mediums
		1.1.10 Approaches to FIV Analysis
		1.1.11 Empirical Nature of Flow-Induced Vibration Analysis
	1.2 Discussion of Flow-Induced Vibration Mechanisms
		1.2.1 Vortex Shedding
			1.2.1.1 Vortex Shedding Against a Single Tube
			1.2.1.2 Strouhal Number
			1.2.1.3 Vortex Shedding Against a Tube Bundle
			1.2.1.4 Avoiding Resonance
			1.2.1.5 Calculation of the Strouhal Number for Tube Arrays
			1.2.1.6 Criteria to Avoid Vortex Shedding
			1.2.1.7 Response Due to Vortex Shedding Vibration Prediction By Dynamic Analysis
	1.3 Turbulence-Induced Excitation Mechanism
		1.3.1 Turbulence
		1.3.2 Turbulent Buffeting
		1.3.3 Owen’s Expression for Turbulent Buffeting Frequency
		1.3.4 Turbulent Buffeting Excitation as a Random Phenomenon
	1.4 Fluid Elastic Instability
		1.4.1 Fluid Elastic Forces
		1.4.2 General Characteristics of Instability
		1.4.3 Connors’ Fluid Elastic Instability Analysis
		1.4.4 Analytical Model
		1.4.5 Unsteady Model
			1.4.5.1 Displacement Mechanism
			1.4.5.2 Velocity Mechanism
			1.4.5.3 Unsteady Model
		1.4.6 Design Recommendations
			1.4.6.1 Chen’s Criterion
			1.4.6.2 Au-Yang Et Al. Criteria
			1.4.6.3 Guidelines of Pettigrew and Taylor
		1.4.7 Acceptance Criteria
		1.4.8 Stability Diagrams
	1.5 Shellside Acoustic Vibration
		1.5.1 Acoustic Resonance
		1.5.2 Principle of Standing Waves
		1.5.3 Effect of Tube Solidity On Sound Velocity
		1.5.4 Expressions for Acoustic Resonance Frequency
			1.5.4.1 Blevins Expression
		1.5.5 Acoustic Resonance Excitation Mechanisms
			1.5.5.1 Vortex Shedding Mechanism
			1.5.5.2 Turbulent Buffeting Mechanism
		1.5.6 Acceptance Criteria for Occurrence of Acoustic Resonance
			1.5.6.1 Vortex Shedding
		1.5.7 Turbulent Buffeting
	1.6 FIV Evaluation
		1.6.1 Solutions to Vibration Problems
			1.6.1.1 Increase the Tube Natural Frequency
			1.6.1.2 Fluid Damping Effect
		1.6.2 Vibration Problems as Addressed in Heat Exchanger Standards
		1.6.3 Vibration Evaluation Procedure
			1.6.3.1 Steps of Vibration Evaluation Procedure
		1.6.4 Caution in Applying Experimentally Derived Values for Vibration Evaluation
	1.7 Design Guidelines for Vibration Prevention
		1.7.1 TEMA Guidelines for Tube Bundle Vibration Prevention
		1.7.2 Tema Guidelines for Shellside Impingement Protection Requirements
		1.7.3 Methods to Increase Tube Natural Frequency
		1.7.4 FIV of Titanium Alloy Tubes Unit Retubed
		1.7.5 Other Guidelines
		1.7.6 Methods to Reduce Crossflow Velocity
			1.7.6.1 Tube Vibration Mitigation
	1.8 Acoustic Vibration Mitigation—Suppression Of Standing Wave Vibration
		1.8.1 Antivibration Baffles
		1.8.2 Helmholtz Cavity Resonator
		1.8.3 Concept of Fin Barrier
		1.8.4 Concept of Helical Spacers
		1.8.5 Detuning
		1.8.6 Removal of Tubes
		1.8.7 Surface Modification
		1.8.8 Irregular Spacing of Tubes
		1.8.9 Change the Mass Flow Rate
	1.9 Baffle Damage and Collision Damage
		1.9.1 Empirical Checks for Vibration Severity
	1.10 Impact and Fretting Wear
		1.10.1 Tube Wear Prediction By Experimental Techniques
		1.10.2 Theoretical Model
	1.11 Determination of Hydrodynamic Mass, Natural Frequency, and Damping
		1.11.1 Added Mass Or Hydrodynamic Mass
		1.11.2 Determination of Added Mass Coefficient, Cm, for Single-Phase Flow
			1.11.2.1 Blevins Correlation
			1.11.2.2 Experimental Data of Moretti Et Al.
		1.11.3 Natural Frequencies of Tube Bundles
			1.11.3.1 Estimation of Natural Frequencies of Straight Tubes
			1.11.3.2 U-Tube Natural Frequency
		1.11.4 Damping
			1.11.4.1 Determination of Damping
	1.12 New Technologies of Antivibration Tools
		1.12.1 Nonsegmental Baffles
		1.12.2 Antivibration Tube Stakes
			1.12.2.1 Cradle-Lock® Anti-Vibration Tube Stakes
			1.12.2.2 Antivibration Measures of ExxonMobil Research and Engineering
	1.13 Software Programs for Analysis of FIV
	Nomenclature
	Notes
	References
	Suggested Readings
2 Fouling
	2.1 Effect of Fouling on The Thermohydraulic Performance of Heat Exchangers
	2.2 Costs of Heat Exchanger Fouling
		2.2.1 Oversizing
		2.2.2 Additional Energy Costs
		2.2.3 Treatment Cost to Lessen Corrosion and Fouling
		2.2.4 Lost Production Due to Maintenance Schedules and Down Time for Maintenance
	2.3 Fouling Curves/Modes of Fouling
	2.4 Stages of Fouling
	2.5 Fouling Model
	2.6 Mechanisms of Fouling
		2.6.1 Particulate Fouling
		2.6.2 Chemical Reaction Fouling (Polymerization)
		2.6.3 Corrosion Fouling
		2.6.4 Crystallization Or Precipitation Fouling
			2.6.4.1 Modeling for Scaling
		2.6.5 Biological Fouling
		2.6.6 Solidification Fouling Or Freezing Fouling
		2.6.7 Freezing Fouling
		2.6.8 Mixed Mechanisms of Fouling
	2.7 Parameters That Influence Incidence Of Fouling
		2.7.1 Properties of Fluids and Usual Propensity for Fouling
		2.7.2 Temperature
			2.7.2.1 Effect of Temperature On Fouling
		2.7.3 Velocity and Hydrodynamic Effects
		2.7.4 Tube Material
		2.7.5 Impurities
		2.7.6 Surface Roughness
		2.7.7 Suspended Solids
		2.7.8 Placing More Fouling Fluid On the Tubeside of STHE
		2.7.9 Shellside Flow
		2.7.10 Low-Finned Tube Heat Exchanger
		2.7.11 Heat Transfer Augmentation Devices
		2.7.12 Gasketed Plate Heat Exchangers (PHE)
		2.7.13 Spiral Plate Exchangers
		2.7.14 Seasonal Temperature Changes
		2.7.15 Equipment Design
		2.7.16 Heat Exchanger Geometry and Orientation
		2.7.17 Heat Transfer Processes Like Sensible Heating, Cooling, Condensation, and Vaporization
		2.7.18 Type of Heat Exchanger
			2.7.18.1 Philips RODbaffle Heat Exchanger
			2.7.18.2 EMbaffle® Heat Exchanger
			2.7.18.3 HELIXCHANGER Heat Exchanger
			2.7.18.4 Koch Twisted Tube Heat Exchanger
	2.8 Gas-Side Fouling In Industrial Heat Transfer Equipment
		2.8.1 Heat Transfer Equipment Prone for Gas-Side Fouling
		2.8.2 Dew-Point Corrosion
		2.8.3 Gas-Side Fouling Prevention, Mitigation Techniques
			2.8.3.1 Surface Cleaning Techniques
			2.8.3.2 Steam and Air Soot Blowers
			2.8.3.3 Water Washing
			2.8.3.4 Other Cleaning Techniques
	2.9 Fouling of Refinery Process Equipment
		2.9.1 Economic Impact of Fouling
		2.9.2 Fouling Mechanisms
		2.9.3 Antifoulant Chemical Treatment
	2.10 Fouling Data
	2.11 How Fouling Is Dealt While Designing Heat Exchangers
		2.11.1 Specifying the Fouling Resistances
		2.11.2 Oversizing
	2.12 Tema Fouling Resistance Values
		2.12.1 RGP-T-2.5 Fouling Mitigation Design Method
	2.13 Research in Fouling
	2.14 Fouling Monitoring
		2.14.1 Fouling Inline Analysis
			2.14.2 Tube Fouling Monitors
		2.14.3 Fouling Monitor
			2.14.3.1 Instruments for Monitoring of Fouling
			2.14.3.2 Gas-Side Fouling Measuring Devices
	2.15 Expert System
	2.16 Fouling Prevention and Control
		2.16.1 Measures to Be Taken During the Design Stages
	2.17 Cleaning of Heat Exchangers
		2.17.1 Cleaning Techniques
		2.17.2 Deposit Analysis
		2.17.3 Selection of Appropriate Cleaning Methods
			2.17.3.1 Developing an Appropriate Cleaning Procedure
			2.17.3.2 Precautions to Be Taken While Undertaking a Cleaning Operation
	2.18 Offline Mechanical Cleaning
		2.18.1 Manual Cleaning
		2.18.2 Jet Cleaning
		2.18.3 Automated Systems for External Cleaning
			2.18.3.1 Safety and Ergonomics
			2.18.3.1 Automated Systems for Internal Cleaning
		2.18.4 Fouling Tendencies of Air-Cooled Condenser
			2.18.4.1 Cleaning Techniques for Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers
			2.18.4.2 Drilling and Roding of Tubes
			2.18.4.3 Turbining
			2.18.4.4 Hydro Drilling
			2.18.4.5 Projectile Cleaning
			2.18.4.6 Scraper-Type Tube Cleaners
			2.18.4.7 Blast Cleaning
			2.18.4.8 Soot Blowing
			2.18.4.9 Thermal Cleaning
		2.18.5 Merits of Mechanical Cleaning
	2.19 Chemical Cleaning
		2.19.1 Clean-In-Place Systems
		2.19.2 Choosing a Chemical Cleaning Method
		2.19.3 Chemical Cleaning Solutions
		2.19.4 General Procedure for Chemical Cleaning
			2.19.4.1 CIP of PHE
		2.19.5 Offline Chemical Cleaning
			2.19.5.1 Integrated Chemical Cleaning Apparatus
			2.19.5.2 Merits of Chemical Cleaning
			2.19.5.3 Disadvantages of Chemical Cleaning Methods
	2.20 Online Mechanical Cleaning Methods
		2.20.1 Upstream Filtration (Debris Filter)
		2.20.2 Flow Excursion
		2.20.3 Air Bumping
		2.20.4 Reversing Flow in Heat Exchangers
		2.20.5 Online Tube Cleaning Systems
		2.20.6 Flow-Driven Brushes
		2.20.7 Sponge Rubber Ball Cleaning System
		2.20.8 Brush and Cage System. Automatic Online Tube Cleaning System (ATCS)
		2.20.9 Insert Technology
			2.20.9.1 Spirelf System
			2.20.9.2 Turbotal
			2.20.9.3 Fixotal
		2.20.10 Merits of Online Cleaning
	2.21 Grit Cleaning
	2.22 Self-Cleaning Heat Exchangers
	2.23 Liquid Fluidized-Bed Technology
	2.24 Foulant Control by Chemical Additives
	2.25 Electronic Water Conditioning
	2.26 Control of Fouling From Suspended Solids
	2.27 Cooling-Water Management For Reduced Fouling
		2.27.1 Forms of Waterside Fouling
			2.27.1.1 Macro-Fouling
			2.27.1.2 Macro-Fouling Prevention: Use of a Debris Filter
			2.27.1.3 Use of Alfa Laval Backflushing Filter (ALF)
			2.27.1.4 Macro-Fouling Control
			2.27.1.5 Oxidizing Antimicrobials
			2.27.1.6 Nonoxidizing Antimicrobials
			2.27.1.7 Macro-Fouling Cleaning Methods
	2.28 Other Fouling Types
		2.28.1 Fouling Influencing Parameters
	2.29 Methods of Cooling-Water Fouling Control
		2.29.1 Removal of Particulate Matter
		2.29.2 High Water Velocities
		2.29.3 Dispersants
		2.29.4 Surfactants
	2.30 Foulant Control Versus Type of Cooling-Water System
		2.30.1 Cooling-Water Systems
			2.30.1.1 Once-Through System
			2.30.1.2 Open Recirculating Cooling Systems
			2.30.1.3 Fouling in Open Recirculating Cooling Systems
			2.30.1.4 Closed Recirculating Systems
		2.30.2 Fouling Mechanisms in Cooling-Water Systems
			2.30.2.1 Crystalization of Inverse Solubility Salts
			2.30.2.2 Sedimentation
			2.30.2.3 Water Chemistry
		2.30.3 Deposition Monitoring and Control
			2.30.3.1 Fouling Control
	2.31 Online Chemical Control of Cooling-Water Foulants
	2.32 Scaling Tendencies and Control
		2.32.1 Scaling Indices
		2.32.2 Control of Scale Formation and Fouling Resistances for Treated Cooling Water
			2.32.2.1 Chemical Means to Control Scaling
			2.32.2.2 Electrostatic Scale Controller and Preventer
		2.32.3 Cleaning of Scales
			2.32.3.1 Chemical Cleaning
	2.33 Iron Oxide Removal
	2.34 Monitoring of Fouling
	Nomenclature
	Notes
	References
	Bibliography
3 Corrosion
	3.1 Basics of Corrosion
		3.1.1 Reasons for Corrosion Studies
		3.1.2 Corrosion Mechanism
			3.1.2.1 Basic Corrosion Mechanism of Iron in Aerated Aqueous System
		3.1.3 Forms of Electrochemical Corrosion
			3.1.3.1 Bimetallic Cell
			3.1.3.2 Concentration Cell
			3.1.3.3 Differential Temperature Cells
		3.1.4 Corrosion Potential and Corrosion Current
		3.1.5 Corrosion Kinetics
			3.1.5.1 Polarization Effects
			3.1.5.2 Passivation
		3.1.6 Factors Affecting Corrosion of a Material in an Environment
			3.1.6.1 Environmentally Assisted Cracking
			3.1.6.2 ISO 12944—The Corrosive Environment
			3.1.6.3 Surface Layer
			3.1.6.4 Environments and Corrosion Effects
			3.1.6.5 Details of Environmental Factors That Cause Corrosion
			3.1.6.6 High-Temperature Corrosion
	3.2 Uniform Corrosion Versus Localized Corrosion
		3.2.1 Factors That Favor Localized Attack
	3.3 Forms of Corrosion As Defined by Fontana and Greene
		3.3.1 Uniform Or General Corrosion
			3.3.1.1 Corrosion Rate—Units of Measurement
		3.3.2 Galvanic Corrosion
			3.3.2.1 Heat Exchanger Locations Susceptible to Galvanic Corrosion
			3.3.2.2 Galvanic Corrosion Sources
			3.3.2.3 Types of Galvanic Corrosion
			3.3.2.4 Magnitude of Galvanic Effects
			3.3.2.5 Tools to Determine the Degree of Galvanic Corrosion
			3.3.2.6 Galvanic Corrosion Control
		3.3.3 Pitting Corrosion
			3.3.3.1 Parameters Responsible for Pitting Corrosion
			3.3.3.2 Mechanisms and Theories of Pitting Corrosion
			3.3.3.3 Pitting Potential
			3.3.3.4 Prevention of Pitting Corrosion
			3.3.3.5 How to Gauge Resistance to Pitting
		3.3.4 Crevice Corrosion
			3.3.4.1 ASTM Standard Guide for Crevice Corrosion Testing
		3.3.5 Intergranular Corrosion
			3.3.5.1 Susceptible Alloys
			3.3.5.2 Control of Intergranular Corrosion in Austenitic Stainless Steel
		3.3.6 Dealloying Or Selective Leaching
			3.3.6.1 Factors Influencing Dealloying
			3.3.6.3 Factors Influencing Dezincification
		3.3.7 Erosion–Corrosion
			3.3.7.1 Parameters Influencing Erosion–Corrosion
			3.3.7.2 Erosive Wear
			3.3.7.3 Cavitation
			3.3.7.4 Control of Erosion–Corrosion
			3.3.7.5 Ferrules Or Sleeves Or Tube Inserts
			3.3.7.6 Sleeving (Expansion) Process
		3.3.8 Stress Corrosion Cracking
			3.3.8.1 Heat Exchanger Components Susceptible to SCC
			3.3.8.2 Discussion of Conditions Responsible for SCC
			3.3.8.3 Theory of SCC
			3.3.8.4 Avoiding Stress Corrosion Cracking
		3.3.9 Fretting Corrosion
		3.3.10 Corrosion Fatigue
			3.3.10.1 Corrosion Fatigue of Various Metals
		3.3.11 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC)
			3.3.11.1 Classification of Microbiological Organisms
			3.3.11.2 MIC of Industrial Alloys
			3.3.11.3 Control of MIC
	3.4 Corrosion of Weldments
	3.5 Hydrogen Damage
		3.5.1 Effects of Hydrogen in Steel
		3.5.2 Sources of Hydrogen in Steel
		3.5.3 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking
			3.5.3.1 Stress-Oriented Hydrogen-Induced Cracking
			3.5.3.2 Susceptibility of Steels to HIC
			3.5.3.3 Prevention of HIC
		3.5.4 Hydrogen Embrittlement
			3.5.4.1 Mechanism of Hydrogen Embrittlement
			3.5.4.2 Hydrogen Embrittlement of Steel Weldments
		3.5.5 Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking
			3.5.5.1 Prevention of HSCC
		3.5.6 Hydrogen Blistering
			3.5.6.1 Susceptible Materials
			3.5.6.2 Prevention of Blistering
			3.5.6.3 Detection of Blisters in Service
			3.5.6.4 Correction of Blistered Condition in Steel Equipment
		3.5.7 Pressure Vessel Steels for Sour Environments
		3.5.8 HIC Testing Specification
		3.5.9 Detecting Hydrogen Damage
		3.5.10 Material Selection for Hydrogen Sulfide Environments
			3.5.10.1 NACE MR-0175
			3.5.11 High-Temperature Hydrogen Attack
			3.5.11.1 Description of Damage
			3.5.11.2 Affected Materials
			3.5.11.3 Nelson Curves
			3.5.11.4 HTHA Damage Detection and Inspection
	3.6 Other Types of Corrosion
		3.6.1 Touch Point Corrosion
			3.6.1.1 Design of Supports
		3.6.2 Corrosion Under Insulation
			3.6.2.1 Affected Materials
			3.6.2.2 Critical Factors
			3.6.2.3 Description of CUI
			3.6.2.4 Detection of CUI
			3.6.2.5 Prevention/Mitigation of CUI
		3.6.3 Pipeline Corrosion
			3.6.3.1 Pipe Material
			3.6.3.2 Types of Pipeline Corrosion
			3.6.3.3 Internal Corrosion
			3.6.3.4 NACE SP0106-2018, Control of Internal Corrosion in Steel Pipelines and Piping Systems
			3.6.3.5 Preventive/Mitigative Measures for Internal Corrosion
			3.6.3.6 PHMSA
			3.6.3.7 Fusion-Bonded Epoxy Coating
			3.6.3.8 Pipeline Internal Coating
		3.6.4 Soil Corrosion
		3.6.5 Concrete Corrosion
			3.6.5.1 Concrete Corrosion Control
	3.7 Corrosion Prevention and Control
		3.7.1 Principles of Corrosion Control
		3.7.2 Corrosion Control Techniques
		3.7.3 Corrosion Control By Proper Engineering Design
			3.7.3.1 Design Details
			3.7.3.2 Preservation of Inbuilt Corrosion Resistance
			3.7.3.3 Design to Avoid Various Forms of Corrosion
			3.7.3.4 Weldments, Brazed, and Soldered Joints
			3.7.3.5 Plant Location
			3.7.3.6 Startup and Shutdown Problems
			3.7.3.7 Overdesign
		3.7.4 Corrosion Control By Modification of the Environment (Use of Inhibitors)
			3.7.4.1 Inhibitors
			3.7.4.2 Inhibitor Evaluation
		3.7.5 Corrosion-Resistant Alloys
		3.7.6 Bimetal Concept
			3.7.6.1 Cladding
			3.7.6.2 Bimetallic Or Duplex Tubing
		3.7.7 Protective Coatings
			3.7.7.1 Zinc-Rich Coatings
			3.7.7.2 Thermal Spray Coating
			3.7.7.3 Phosphating
			3.7.7.4 Plastic Coatings
			3.7.7.5 Effectiveness of Coatings
			3.7.7.6 Surface Treatment
		3.7.8 Electrochemical Protection (Cathodic and Anodic Protection)
			3.7.8.1 Principle of Cathodic Protection
			3.7.8.2 Flexible Anode Based On MMO/Ti Coating Technology
			3.7.8.3 Anodic Protection
	3.8 Corrosion Measurement
	3.9 Corrosion Management System
		3.9.1 Building Blocks of a Successful CMS
		3.9.2 Importance of Corrosion Management
		3.9.3 Essential Elements of a Successful Corrosion Management Program
	3.10 Corrosion Monitoring
		3.10.1 Approaches to Corrosion Monitoring
		3.10.2 Corrosion Monitoring Techniques
			3.10.2.1 Online Monitoring Techniques
			3.10.2.2 Electrochemical Techniques
			3.10.2.3 Online Monitoring of Water Purity in Thermal Power Stations
			3.10.2.4 Corrosion Monitoring of Condensers By Systematic Examination of the State of the Tubes
			3.10.2.5 Limitations of Corrosion Monitoring
			3.10.2.6 Requirements for Success of Corrosion Monitoring Systems
	3.11 Cooling-Water System Corrosion
		3.11.1 Corrosion Processes in Water Systems
		3.11.2 Factors Influencing Cooling-Water Corrosion
			3.11.2.1 Chemical Factors
			3.11.2.2 Physical Factors
			3.11.2.3 Biological Factors
		3.11.3 Causes of Corrosion in Cooling-Water Systems
			3.11.3.1 Dissolved Solids and Water Hardness
			3.11.3.2 Chloride
			3.11.3.3 Sulfates
			3.11.3.4 Silica
			3.11.3.5 Oil
			3.11.3.6 Iron and Manganese
			3.11.3.7 Suspended Matter
			3.11.3.8 Dry Residue
			3.11.3.9 Dissolved Gases
		3.11.4 Cooling-Water Systems
			3.11.4.1 Once-Through Cooling-Water Systems
			3.11.4.2 Open Recirculating Systems
			3.11.4.3 Closed Recirculating Systems
		3.11.5 Corrosion Control Methods for Cooling-Water Systems
			3.11.5.1 Material Selection
			3.11.5.2 Water Treatment
			3.11.5.3 Corrosion Inhibitors
			3.11.5.4 Ferrous Sulfate Dosing
			3.11.5.6 Passivation
		3.11.6 Influence of Cooling-Water Types On Corrosion
			3.11.6.1 Fresh Water
			3.11.6.2 Seawater Corrosion
			3.11.6.3 Brackish Waters
			3.11.6.4 Boiler Feedwaters
		3.11.7 Corrosion of Individual Metals in Cooling-Water Systems
		3.11.8 Forms of Corrosion in Cooling Water
			3.11.8.1 Uniform Corrosion
			3.11.8.2 Galvanic Corrosion
			3.11.8.3 Pitting Corrosion
			3.11.8.4 Crevice Corrosion
			3.11.8.5 Stress Corrosion Cracking
			3.11.8.6 Corrosion Fatigue and Fretting Wear
			3.11.8.7 Erosion of Tube Inlet
			3.11.8.8 Dezincification
			3.11.8.9 Microbiologically Induced Corrosion
	3.12 Preventing Corrosion In Automotive Cooling Systems
	References
	Bibliography
4 Boiler, Thermal Power Plant, and Heat Exchangers of Cooling and Feedwater Systems
	4.1 Introduction
		4.1.1 Steam Generator
			4.1.1.1 Definitions Related to Steam
		4.1.2 Boiler Mountings
		4.1.3 Boiler Accessories
			4.1.3.1 Air Preheater
			4.1.3.2 Economizer
			4.1.3.3 Superheater
			4.1.3.4 Reheater
		4.1.4 Soot Blowers
		4.1.5 Boiler Codes and Standards
			4.1.5.1 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Codes
		4.1.6 Fuel
			4.1.6.1 Coal
		4.1.7 Boiler Water Chemistry
		4.1.8 Feedwater Chemistry
		4.1.9 Boiler Selection Considerations
		4.1.10 Instantaneous Demand
		4.1.11 Boiler Classification
			4.1.11.1 Stoker Fired Boiler
			4.1.11.2 Natural Circulation Boiler
			4.1.11.3 Forced Circulation Boiler
			4.1.11.4 Fire-Tube Boiler
			4.1.11.5 Water-Tube Boiler
			4.1.11.6 Fluidized-Bed Boiler
			4.1.11.7 Package Boilers
			4.1.11.8 Waste Heat Recovery Boiler
			4.1.11.9 Cyclone-Fired Boilers
			4.1.11.10 Oil- and Gas-Fired Boilers
			4.1.11.11 Downshot Boiler
			4.1.11.12 Circulating Fluidized-Bed Boiler
			4.1.11.13 OxyFuel Boiler
			4.1.11.14 Industrial Boilers
			4.1.11.15 Utility Boiler
			4.1.11.16 HRSG
	4.2 COAL-BASED THERMAL POWER PLANT
		4.2.1 Steam Generators of Power Plants
		4.2.2 Definition of Subcritical, Supercritical, and Ultrasupercritical States
		4.2.3 Supercritical Technology
		4.2.4 Steam Requirements
		4.2.5 Utility Boiler
			4.2.5.1 Drum Boiler
			4.2.5.2 Once-Through Boiler
			a. BENSON Once-Through Boiler
			b. Sulzer Boiler
		4.2.6 Principle of Power Generation at a Coal-Based Power Plant
		4.2.7 Thermal Power Plant
			4.2.7.1 Fuels Flow
			4.2.7.2 Waste Heat Recovery From Flue Gas
			4.2.7.3 Working of a Coal Fired Power Station
			4.2.7.4 System Arrangement and Key Components
			4.2.7.5 Fuel Flow
			4.2.7.6 Coal Pulverising Mill
			4.2.7.7 Feedwater Flow
			4.2.7.8 Furnace
			4.2.7.9 Draft System
			4.2.7.10 Fuel-Burning System
			4.2.7.11 Superheaters and Reheaters
			4.2.7.12 Water and Steam Flow
			4.2.7.13 Flue Gas System
			4.2.7.14 Flues and Ducts
		4.2.8 Air Heaters
			4.2.8.1 Construction Details of Air Heater
			4.2.8.2 Cold Corners in Air Preheaters
			4.2.8.3 Control of Cold End Corrosion
			4.2.8.4 Dew Point Corrosion
		4.2.9 Economizers
			4.2.9.1 Economizer Surface Types Based On Ref. [19].
		4.2.10 Ash Handling Systems
		4.2.11 Waste Disposal
		4.2.12 Environmental Considerations
			4.2.12.1 Environmental Protection
			4.2.12.2 Emission Control
			4.2.12.3 Particulate Matter Control
			4.2.12.4 Post-Combustion Emission Control
		4.2.13 Plant Performance Indicators
	4.3 Corrosion In Boiler
		4.3.1 Major Causes of Corrosion in Boilers
		4.3.2 Design Conditions Affecting Corrosion
		4.3.3 Water Chemistry
		4.3.4 Deposits
		4.3.5 Types of Corrosion
			4.3.5.1 Galvanic Corrosion
			4.3.5.2 Pitting
			4.3.5.3 Caustic Corrosion
			4.3.5.4 Acidic Corrosion
			4.3.5.5 Hydrogen Embrittlement
			4.3.5.6 Oxygen Attack
			4.3.5.7 Oxygen Control
			4.3.5.8 Carbon Dioxide Attack
			4.3.5.9 Internal Oxygen Pitting
		4.3.6 Guidelines for Corrosion Control
		4.3.7 Basic Corrosion Prevention Methods
		4.3.8 Methods of Corrosion Control
		4.3.9 Operational Problems in Boilers
			4.3.9.1 Condenser in Leakage
		4.3.10 Industrial Boiler Water Treatment Methods
			4.3.10.1 Water Chemistry
			4.3.10.2 Water Hardness
			4.3.10.3 Boiler Water Treatment
			4.3.10.4 External Water Treatment
			4.3.10.5 Internal Water Treatment
		4.3.11 Feed Water Chemistry
			4.3.11.1 PH Control
			4.3.11.2 Oxygen Scavenging
			4.3.11.3 Oxygen Scavengers
		4.3.12 Impurities in Boiler Feedwater
			4.3.12.1 Dissolved Gases
			4.3.12.2 Dissolved Solids
			4.3.12.3 Suspended Solids
			4.3.12.4 Methods to Remove Water Impurities
		4.3.13 ABMA and ASME Standards for Boiler Water Solids in Industrial Boilers
			4.3.13.1 Chemical Treatment
			4.3.13.2 Boiler Water Treatment Philosophies
			4.3.13.3 Preboiler Corrosion
			4.3.13.4 Boiler System Corrosion and Deposition
			4.3.13.5 Oxygen Corrosion
			4.3.13.6 Caustic Corrosion
			4.3.13.7 Steam Purity
			4.3.13.8 Condensate System Corrosion
			4.3.13.9 Monitoring Water Quality
		4.3.14 Carryover
			4.3.14.1 Preventing Carryover
			4.3.14.2 Methods of Carryover Prevention
			4.3.14.3 Foam Control
		4.3.15 Utility Boilers
			4.3.15.1 Boiler Feedwater Chemistry
			4.3.15.2 Water Chemistry Balance
		4.3.16 Corrosion in Utility Boilers—Corrosion Mechanisms in the Water/Steam Cycle
			4.3.16.1 Corrosion in the Water-Steam Circuits of Power Plants
			4.3.16.2 Corrosion Tendencies of Boiler System Components
			4.3.16.3 Boiler System Major Components
			4.3.16.4 Condensate Piping Corrosion and Boiler Deposits
			4.3.16.5 Blowdown
			4.3.16.6 Deposition in Drum Boiler
			4.3.16.7 Scale and Sludge
			4.3.16.8 Scaling
			4.3.16.9 Dissolved Solids
		4.3.17 Condensate Polisher Systems
			4.3.17.1 All-Volatile Treatment, AVT
			4.3.17.2 AVT(R)—All-Volatile Treatment (Reducing)
			4.3.17.3 AVT(O) —All-Volatile Treatment (Oxidizing)
			4.3.17.4 Oxygenated Treatment, OT
			4.3.17.5 Coordinated Phosphate Treatment
		4.3.18 Steam and Water Analysis System (SWAS)
		4.3.19 Boiler Corrosion Monitoring Techniques
	4.4 BOILER DEGRADATION MECHANISMS
		4.4.1 Boiler Pressure Component Failure
		4.4.2 Materials Used for Pressure Parts
			4.4.2.1 Materials for Boiler Tubes [47]
		4.4.3 Discussion of Boiler Degradation Mechanisms
			4.4.3.1 Corrosion
			4.4.3.2 Erosion
			4.4.3.3 DNB
			4.4.3.4 Fatigue Cracking
			4.4.3.5 Soot Blower Erosion
			4.4.3.6 Oxygen Attack
			4.4.3.7 Thermal Fatigue
			4.4.3.8 Overheating
			4.4.3.9 Long-Term Overheating Failures By Creep Damage
			4.4.3.10 High-Temperature Pressure Component Degradation
			4.4.3.11 Low-Temperature Creep
			4.4.3.12 Corrosion Fatigue
			4.4.3.13 Flow-Accelerated Corrosion (FAC)
			4.4.3.14 Hydrogen Damage
			4.4.3.15 Carburization
			4.4.3.16 Graphitization
			4.4.3.17 Dissimilar Metal Weld Failure
			4.4.3.18 Oxygen Pitting
			4.4.3.19 ID Oxygen Pitting Corrosion
			4.4.3.20 Fretting Wear
			4.4.3.22 Coal Particle Abrasion
			4.4.3.23 Stress Corrosion Cracking, SCC
			4.4.3.24 Metallic Oxides in Boiler Systems
			4.4.3.25 Steam Side Burning
			4.4.3.26 Caustic Attack
			4.4.3.27 Caustic Corrosion/Gouging in Boiler
			4.4.3.28 Caustic Embrittlement
			4.4.3.29 Fly Ash Erosion
			4.4.3.30 Fire Side Corrosion
			4.4.3.31 Waterside Corrosion
			4.4.3.32 Dissolved Oxygen (O2)
			4.4.3.33 Corrosion On the Fireside of Boiler Components
			4.4.3.34 Acid Phosphate Corrosion
			4.4.3.35 Guidelines for Prevention/Control of Waterside Degradation Mechanisms
		4.4.4 Cause Wise Boiler Damage Mechanisms
			4.4.4.1 Damage Mechanisms Due to Manufacturing Defects
			4.4.4.2 Water Quality Influenced Damage Mechanisms
		4.4.5 Damage Mechanisms Due to Coal Quality
			4.4.5.1 Fly Ash Erosion
			4.4.5.2 Soot Blower Erosion
			4.4.5.3 Fireside Corrosion
			4.4.5.4 Acid Dew-Point Corrosion
			4.4.5.5 Stress Corrosion Cracking
		4.4.6 Boiler Tube Failures
			4.4.6.1 Categories of Boiler Tube Failure Mechanisms
			4.4.6.2 Discussion On Boiler Tube Failure Mechanisms
		4.4.7 Factors Influencing Boiler Tube Failures
		4.4.8 Flow Chart to Determine Boiler Failure Mechanisms
		4.4.9 Prominent Reasons for Boiler Tube Failures [68]
			4.4.9.1 Economizer Effects
		4.4.10 Erosion Failures
			4.4.10.1 Causes Attributed to Design
			4.4.10.2 Causes Attributed to Erection
			4.4.10.3 Causes Attributed to Operation
			4.4.10.4 Causes Attributed to Maintenance
		4.4.11 Renewal of Boiler Tubes
		4.4.12 Cleaning Industrial Boiler Firesides and Watersides
			4.4.12.1 Cleaning Firesides
			4.4.12.2 Cleaning Watersides
			4.4.12.3 Acid Cleaning Procedures
			4.4.12.4 Flushing and Neutralizing
			4.4.12.5 Boiling Out
		4.4.13 NDT Techniques for Crack Detection
			4.4.13.1 NDT Methods to Detect Weld Integrity
		4.4.14 Factors Influencing Boiler Tube Failures
		4.4.15 Approach for the Control of Boiler Tube Leaks (BTL)
			4.4.15.1 Preventing Boiler Tube Leakage
			4.4.15.2 Tube Pitting
	4.5 Deaerator, Feedwater Heater, Condenser, and Feedwater System
		4.5.1 Deaerator
			4.5.1.1 The Principle of Deaeration
			4.5.1.2 Types of Deaerators
			4.5.1.3 Working of a Deaerator
		4.5.2 Closed Feedwater Heaters
			4.5.2.1 High-Pressure Feedwater Heaters
			4.5.2.2 Feedwater Heater Design Based On Number of Zones
			4.5.2.3 Zones Within a FWH
			4.5.2.4 Steam Flow
			4.5.2.5 Basic Terms
			4.5.2.6 Standards and Codes
			4.5.2.7 Orientation
			4.5.2.8 Construction
			4.5.2.9 Working
			4.5.2.10 Temperature Profiles for a High-Pressure Feedwater Heater
			4.5.2.11 Thermal Design Considerations
			4.5.2.12 Performance Measures
			4.5.2.13 Feedwater Heater Design and Maintenance [11]
			4.5.2.14 Feedwater Heater Performance Issues
			4.5.2.15 Controls for Auxiliary Equipment
			4.5.2.16 Failures of the Feedwater Heater
			4.5.2.17 Tube Failures Due to Corrosion
		4.5.3 Steam Surface Condenser
			4.5.3.1 Condenser Types
			4.5.3.2 Types of Surface Condenser
			4.5.3.3 Surface Condenser of Power Plants
		4.5.4 Parts of Condenser
		4.5.5 Structural Features of the Condenser
		4.5.6 Condenser Performance
		4.5.7 Condensate System
			4.5.7.1 Condensate Polishing System
			4.5.7.2 Feed Water System
			4.5.7.3 Drain System
		4.5.8 Condenser Heat Transfer
		4.5.9 Condenser Heat Duty
		4.5.10 Reliability and Performance of Condensers
			4.5.10.1 Condenser Tube Leakage
		4.5.11 Common Condenser Problems
			4.5.11.1 Air Inleakage
		4.5.12 Condenser Tube Failure Mechanisms
			4.5.12.1 Other Failure Modes
		4.5.13 Condenser Operation and Maintenance
			4.5.13.1 Water Chemistry Recommendations
			4.5.13.2 Make-Up Water System
		4.5.14 Deposition
			4.5.14.1 Scale
			4.5.14.2 Fouling
			4.5.14.3 Deposition Monitoring and Control—Scaling Indices
			4.5.14.4 Operational Control for Scaling Control
			4.5.14.5 Microbiological Control
		4.5.15 Condenser Tube Corrosion, After Ref. [94]
		4.5.16 Maximum Chloride Levels in the Condensate
		4.5.17 Recommendations to Overcome Condenser Corrosion
		4.5.18 Condenser Tube Leaks
			4.5.18.1 Circulating Water Inleakage
			4.5.18.2 Condenser Tube Leaks and Corrosion
			4.5.18.3 Tracking Condenser Tube Leaks
		4.5.19 Eddy Current Testing of Condenser Tubes to Locate Weak Tubes
		4.5.20 Condenser Leak Detection
			4.5.20.1 Leak Check Methods
			4.5.20.2 Online Methods
			4.5.20.3 Offline Methods
		4.5.21 Plugging Condenser Tube Leaks
		4.5.22 Air Leakage Monitoring and Control
		4.5.23 Condenser Tube Cleaning
		4.5.24 Condenser End-Of-Life Replacement
	4.6 Cooling Systems
		4.6.1 Once-Through Cooling SYSTEM
		4.6.2 Open Recirculating Cooling Systems
		4.6.3 Closed Recirculating Cooling Systems
		4.6.4 Dry Cooling Systems
		4.6.5 Hybrid Cooling Systems
		4.6.6 Economics of the CW System
	4.7 OPEN RECIRCULATING COOLING-WATER SYSTEMS AND COOLING TOWER
		4.7.1 Cooling Tower
		4.7.2 Psychrometic Analysis
		4.7.3 Cooling Tower Performance Indices
			4.7.3.1 Approach
			4.7.3.2 Cooling Tower Range
		4.7.4 Classification of Cooling Towers
			4.7.4.1 Mechanical Draft Towers
			4.7.4.2 Forced Draft Cooling Towers
			4.7.4.3 Induced Draft Cooling Towers
			4.7.4.4 Natural Draught Vs and Mechanical Draught Towers
			4.7.4.5 Crossflow Cooling Towers
			4.7.4.6 Counterflow Cooling Towers
			4.7.4.7 Natural Draft Tower
			4.7.4.8 Wet Cooling Towers
			4.7.4.9 Dry Cooling System
			Air-Cooled Condenser
			4.7.4.11 Indirect Dry Cooling System
			4.7.4.12 Indirect Dry Cooling “Heller System”
			4.7.4.13 Hybrid Cooling Systems
		4.7.5 Selection Considerations
		4.7.6 Typical Cooling Tower Installations
		4.7.7 Components of a Cooling Tower
			4.7.7.1 Basin and Cold Well
			4.7.7.2 Water Distribution and Fan Deck
			4.7.7.3 Fill
			4.7.7.5 Drift Eliminators
		4.7.8 Materials of Construction
		4.7.9 Cooling Tower Water System Concerns
			4.7.9.1 Water Loss
			4.7.9.2 Common Cooling Tower Water Issues—Deposition
			4.7.9.3 The PH Balance of Cooling Tower Water
		4.7.10 Ways of Cooling Water Loss
			4.7.10.1 Cycles of Concentration (CoC)
			4.7.10.2 Low Cycle of Concentration
		4.7.11 Relation Between, Make-Up, Cycles of Concentration (CoC) and Blowdown, After Refs. [106–109]
		4.7.12 Cooling Water Problems and Solutions
			4.7.12.1 Corrosion and Scaling Tendencies After Ref. [110]
			4.7.12.2 Corrosion and Scale Control
			4.7.12.3 Scale Control
			4.7.12.4 Controlling Corrosion
			4.7.12.5 Microbiological Fouling
			4.7.12.6 Controlling Microbiological Fouling
			4.7.12.7 Chemistries for Microbiological Control
		4.7.13 Basics of Water Treatment
			4.7.13.1 Details of Cooling Tower Water Treatment Program
			4.7.13.2 Critical Water Chemistry Parameters
			4.7.13.3 Cooling Tower Water Treatment System Control Parameters
			4.7.13.4 Chemical Treatment Program Requirements
			4.7.13.5 Chemical Applications
			4.7.13.6 Multiple Chemical Treatments
		4.7.14 Make-Up Water
		4.7.15 Makeup Water Treatment
		4.7.16 Cooling Tower Operation and Maintenance
			4.7.16.1 Water Efficiency
			4.7.16.2 Replacement Options
			4.7.16.3 Retrofit Options
		4.7.17 Cooling Tower Performance Parameters
		4.7.18 Measures for Efficiency Improvement of Cooling Towers
		4.7.19 Common Cooling Tower Problems
			4.7.19.1 Drift and Plume Abatement
		4.7.20 Cooling Tower Timber Deterioration
			4.7.20.1 Pressure Treatment
			4.7.20.2 Control of Wood Deterioration
			4.7.20.3 Sterilization
		4.7.21 Drift Eliminator
		4.7.22 Tower Location
		4.7.23 Water Loss in Cooling Towers
		4.7.24 Monitoring of Cooling Tower Performance
			4.7.24.1 Chemical Monitoring and Control
			4.7.24.2 Microbiological Monitoring and Control
			4.7.24.3 Deposition Monitoring and Control
			4.7.24.5 Tower Film Fill Inspection and Cleaning
			4.7.24.6 Performance Monitoring Parameters
		4.7.25 Inspection and Maintenance
		4.7.26 Automation
		4.7.27 Water System Modeling
		4.7.28 Environmental Protection
		4.7.29 Principles of Green Chemistry
		4.7.30 Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD)
		4.7.31 Effluent Pathways and Potential Treatment Programs
	References
	BIBILOGRAPHY
5 Heat Exchanger Installation, Operation, and Maintenance
	5.1 Storage
	5.2 Installation
		5.2.1 Locational Factors
		5.2.2 Installation Guidelines
	5.3 Operation
	5.4 Maintenance
	5.5 Deterioration In Service and Failure Modes
	Damage Mechanisms Within Process Equipment, After API RP 571[4]
		5.6.1 885 °F (475 °C) Embrittlement
		5.6.2 Ammonia Stress Corrosion Cracking
		5.6.3 Brine Corrosion
		5.6.4 Carburization
		5.6.5 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Corrosion
		5.6.6 Caustic Corrosion/Gouging
		5.6.7 Creep
		5.6.8 Decarburization
		5.6.9 Dew-Point Corrosion
		5.6.10 Fuel Ash Corrosion
		5.6.11 Hydrogen Damage
		5.6.12 Oxidation
		5.6.13 Refractory Degradation
		5.6.14 Stress Relaxation Cracking (Reheat Cracking)
		5.6.15 Temper Embrittlement
		5.6.16 Titanium Hydriding
		5.6.17 Water Hammer
	5.7 Pressure Vessel
		5.7.1 Condition Monitoring Locations
		5.7.2 National Board Inspection Code (NBIC)
		5.7.3 Pressure Vessel Failure
			5.7.3.1 Causes of PV Failures
		5.7.4 Failures Types in Pressure Vessels
		5.7.5 Fatigue
			5.7.5.1 Factors Affecting Fatigue Life
			5.7.5.2 Loading That Could Initiate a Fatigue Crack
			5.7.5.3 Miner’s Rule
			5.7.5.4 S-N Curve
			5.7.5.5 Fatigue Life
			5.7.5.6 Design Considerations for Better Fatigue Life
		5.7.6 Fracture Mechanics
			5.7.6.1 Modes of Loading
			5.7.6.2 Fracture Toughness
			5.7.6.3 Fracture Toughness Vs. Thickness
			5.7.6.4 Role of Material Thickness
			5.7.6.5 Principal Fracture Path Directions
			5.7.6.6 Flaw Evaluation By Fracture Mechanics
			5.7.6.7 The Brittle Fracture
			5.7.6.8 Brittle and Ductile Fracture
			5.7.6.9 Notched-Bar Impact Tests
			5.7.6.10 Standard for Fitness-For-Service, FFS-1, 2021
			5.7.6.11 Approach For Crack-Like Flaws
			5.7.6.12 Fitness-For-Service ASME API 579-1/ASME FFS-1-2021
	5.8 Asset Integrity Management (AIM) Program
		5.8.1 Scope of AIM
		5.8.2 Asset Performance Management (APM)
		5.8.3 Importance of Asset Integrity Management (AIM)
	5.9 Pressure Vessel Inspection
		5.9.1 Purpose of Pressure Vessel Inspection Program
		5.9.2 Remote Visual Inspection (RVI)
		5.9.3 Use of Drones in Visual Inspections
		5.9.4 Inspection Procedure
		5.9.5 External Inspection
		5.9.6 Thickness Survey
		5.9.7 Stress Analysis
		5.9.8 Potential Flaws in Pressure Vessel Nozzle Welds
		5.9.9 Internal Inspection
		5.9.10 Inspection of Pressure Gages
		5.9.11 Inspection of Safety Devices
		5.9.12 Pressure Testing
		5.9.13 Inspection of Piping Systems
		5.9.14 Deterioration of Pipelines
		5.9.15 Reporting
		5.9.16 Record Keeping
	5.10 PERIODICAL INSPECTION OF HEAT EXCHANGER UNIT
		5.10.1 Indications of Fouling
	5.11 Deterioration of Heat Exchanger Performance
		5.11.1 Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers
			5.11.1.1 Determine the Original Design Performance Data of the ACHE
			5.11.1.2 NDE of ACHE Tubing [44]
			5.11.1.3 Inspection Plan for the ACHE Unit
			5.11.1.4 API Standards for ACHE
			5.11.1.5 Determine the Current ACHE Performance and Set Baseline
			5.11.1.6 Install Upgrades
			5.11.1.7 Tube Bundle
	5.12 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger Maintenance
		5.12.1 Causes of Heat Exchanger Tube Failure
			5.12.1.1 Major Causes of Heat Exchanger Tube Failure
		5.12.2 Quality Auditing of Existing Heat Exchanger
		5.12.3 Leak Detection: Weep-Hole Inspection
		5.12.4 Removal of Tube Bundle, Transportation, and Cleaning
		5.12.5 Preparing Tube Bundles for Tube ID Inspection
		5.12.6 Cleaning Tube Bundles
			5.12.6.1 Tube Bundle Cleaning Methods
		5.12.7 Primary Tube Failure Mechanisms of STHE and Inspection Methods
		5.12.8 Locating Tube Leaks
		5.12.9 Gasket Replacement
		5.12.10 STHE Repair
		5.12.11 Preparing Tube Bundles for Tube Internal Inspection
		5.12.12 Tube Bundle Cleaning Methods
		5.12.13 ASME PCC-2-2018, Repair of Pressure Equipment and Piping
		5.12.14 Tubes Repair
		5.12.15 Heat Exchanger Tube Failures
		5.12.16 NDT Methods for Heat Exchanger and Boiler Tube Inspection
		5.12.17 Tube Inspection By ECT, RFET, NFT, ECA, MFL, IRIS
		5.12.18 Acoustic Pulse Reflectometry (APR)
			5.12.18.1 Use of APR to Detect Fouling
		5.12.19 Heat Exchanger Tube Plugging
			5.12.19.1 TEMA Guidelines for Tube Plugging
			5.12.19.2 Explosive Welded Plugs in a Feedwater Heater
			5.12.19.3 Tube Inserts
			5.12.19.4 Sleeves
			5.12.19.5 Pop-A-Plug® Heat Exchanger Tube Plugging System
			5.12.19.6 Tube Plug Sleeving
			5.12.19.7 Hydrostatic Testing Equipment
		5.12.20 Brazed Aluminum Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger
			5.12.20.1 Leak Detection
			5.12.20.2 Repair of Leaks
	5.13 NDT Methods to Inspect And Assess the Condition of Heat Exchanger and Pressure Vessel Components
		5.13.1 Nondestructive Examination
		5.13.2 Remote Visual Inspection (RVI)
		5.13.3 Video Borescopes
		5.13.4 Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
		5.13.5 Radiographic Testing (RT)
		5.13.6 Tube Inspection
			5.13.6.1 Ultrasonic Internal Rotary Inspection System
			5.13.6.2 Eddy Current Testing
			5.13.6.3 In-Service Examination of Heat Exchangers for Detection of Leaks
			5.13.6.4 Remote Field Eddy Current Testing
	5.14 Residual Life Assessment of Heat Exchangers by NDT Techniques
	5.14.1 Creep Waves
	5.14.2 Hydrogen Attack Detection by Ultrasonic Method Based on Backscatter and Velocity Ratio Measurement
	5.14.3 Pulsed Eddy Currents
	5.14.4 Flash Radiography
	5.14.5 Low-Frequency Electromagnetic Test
	5.14.6 Photon-Induced Positron Annihilation and Distributed Source Positron Annihilation
	5.14.7 Replication Techniques
	5.14.8 Creep Determinations by Nondestructive Testing Method
	5.14.9 NDT For Plant Life Assessment
	5.15 On-Site Metallurgy Services
	5.16 Professional Service Providers For Heat Exchangers
	References
Index