Handbook on Nondestructive Testing of Concrete Second Edition

Cover......Page 1
Handbook on Nondestructive Testing of Concrete......Page 4
©......Page 5
Foreword......Page 6
Preface......Page 8
The Editors......Page 10
Contributors......Page 12
Contents......Page 14
1.1 Introduction......Page 17
1.2.3 Pendulum Hammer by Einbeck......Page 18
1.3.1 Rebound Hammer by Schmidt......Page 19
1.4.2 Size, Shape, and Rigidity of Test Specimens......Page 23
1.4.3 Age of Test Specimen......Page 24
1.4.5 Type of Coarse Aggregate......Page 25
1.5 Rebound Number and Estimation of Compressive Strength......Page 26
1.6 Rebound Number and Flexural Strength......Page 27
1.8 North American Survey on the Use of the Rebound Hammer......Page 28
References......Page 29
2.1 Introduction......Page 33
2.2.2 Description......Page 34
2.2.3 Method of Testing......Page 35
2.3.1 Mechanism of Concrete Failure......Page 36
2.3.2 Correlations between Probe Test Results and Compressive Strength......Page 38
2.3.3 Variability of the Probe Penetration Test......Page 39
2.3.4 Variations in the Estimated Strength Values......Page 40
2.3.6 Use of the Probe Penetration Test for Early Form Removal......Page 41
2.3.7 Probe Penetration Test vs. Core Testing......Page 42
2.3.8 Probe Penetration Test vs. Rebound Hammer Test......Page 44
2.4 Pin Penetration Test......Page 45
References......Page 47
3.1 Introduction......Page 51
3.2.1 Development in the Former Soviet Union......Page 52
3.2.2 Development in the United States......Page 53
3.2.3 Danish Test (Lok-Strength)......Page 54
3.2.4 U.S. Test by Richards......Page 56
3.2.6 Summary......Page 57
3.3.1 Qualitative Explanations......Page 58
3.3.2.2 Nonlinear Finite Element Analysis......Page 60
3.3.2.4 Fracture Mechanics Analysis......Page 61
3.3.3.1 Large-Scale Tests......Page 63
3.3.3.2 Microcracking Analysis......Page 65
3.3.4 Summary......Page 66
3.4.1 Repeatability......Page 67
3.4.2 Strength Relationship......Page 72
3.4.3 Summary......Page 77
3.5.1 Standards......Page 78
3.5.2 Strength Relationship......Page 79
3.5.3 Interpretation of Results......Page 80
3.5.4 Precision......Page 82
3.5.6 Post-Installed Tests......Page 83
3.6 Concluding Remarks......Page 86
References......Page 87
4.1 Introduction......Page 91
4.2 Theoretical Considerations......Page 92
4.3 BO Test Equipment......Page 93
4.4 Historical Background......Page 94
4.5.1 Inserting Sleeves in Fresh Concrete......Page 98
4.5.3 Conducting the BO Test......Page 100
4.5.4 The BO Tester Calibration Procedure......Page 101
4.5.5 Developing a Correlation Curve......Page 102
4.6 Evaluation of Test Specimens......Page 103
4.7 Applications......Page 104
References......Page 105
5.1 Introduction......Page 107
5.2.1 Maturity Functions......Page 108
5.2.2 Strength-Maturity Relationships......Page 113
5.3.1 Strength Gain of Concrete......Page 118
5.3.2.1 Isothermal Conditions......Page 120
5.3.2.2 Variable Temperature Conditions......Page 121
5.3.3 Experimental Results......Page 122
5.3.4 Values of Activation Energy......Page 126
5.3.5 Relative Strength Gain......Page 129
5.3.6 Summary......Page 132
5.4.1 Basic Principle......Page 133
5.4.2 Maturity Instruments......Page 134
5.4.3 Maturity Method Combined with Other Methods......Page 136
5.4.4.1 Strength-Maturity Relationship......Page 137
5.4.5 Maturity and Other Properties......Page 141
5.4.6 Application to High-Strength Concrete......Page 142
5.4.7 Application in Pavement and Bridge Construction......Page 144
5.5 Standard Practice......Page 145
5.5.3 Estimating In-Place Strength......Page 146
5.6 Conclusion......Page 147
References......Page 149
6.2 In Situ Strength Assessment......Page 155
6.2.2 Pull-Off Test......Page 156
6.4.1 Absorption Tests......Page 158
6.4.1.2 Initial Surface Absorption Test (ISAT)......Page 159
6.4.1.3 Autoclam Sorptivity Test......Page 160
6.4.1.4 Figg Water-Absorption Test......Page 162
6.4.2.2 Figg Air Permeability Test......Page 163
6.4.2.4 Surface Airflow Test......Page 164
References......Page 165
Resonant Frequency Methods......Page 167
7.2 Resonant Frequency Method......Page 168
7.2.1 Test Equipment......Page 169
7.2.3 Vibration Sensing Section......Page 170
7.2.5 Calculation of Dynamic Moduli of Elasticity and Rigidity and Poisson’s Ratio......Page 171
7.4.1 Influence of Mix Proportions and Properties of Aggregates......Page 172
7.4.3 Influence of Curing Conditions......Page 173
7.5.2 Corrosion of Concrete in Aggressive Media......Page 174
7.6 Reproducibility of Test Results......Page 175
7.9 Comparison of Dynamic and Static Moduli of Elasticity......Page 177
7.11 Damping Properties of Concrete......Page 180
7.11.2 Damping Constant......Page 181
7.13 Limitations and Usefulness of Resonant Frequency Methods......Page 184
References......Page 185
8.1 Historical Background......Page 189
8.2 Theory of Wave Propagation......Page 190
8.4 The Pulse Velocity Method......Page 191
8.5.1.1 Aggregate Size, Grading, Type, and Content......Page 194
8.5.2.1 Transducer Contact......Page 195
8.5.2.6 Level of Stress......Page 196
8.6 Standardization of the Pulse Velocity Method......Page 197
8.7.1 Estimation of Strength of Concrete......Page 198
8.7.2 Establishing Homogeneity of Concrete......Page 199
8.7.5 Measurement of Surface Crack Depth......Page 200
Appendix 8.1: Effect of Reinforcing Bars......Page 202
Axis of Reinforcing Bar Perpendicular to Direction of Propagation......Page 203
Two-Way Reinforcement......Page 204
References......Page 205
9.1 Introduction......Page 209
9.2 Historical Development......Page 210
9.3.2 Description of Test Methods......Page 211
9.3.3 Development of Test Methods for Practical Applications......Page 213
9.3.4 Limitations and Advantages of Combined Pulse Velocity and Rebound Number Technique......Page 216
9.3.5 Application of Combined Test Methods......Page 217
9.4 Conclusions......Page 218
References......Page 219
10.2.1 Introduction......Page 221
10.2.2.2 Flux Leaking Theory......Page 222
10.2.2.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)......Page 223
10.2.3.1 Depth of Concrete Cover......Page 224
10.2.3.2 Magnetic Field Method of Detecting Flaws in Reinforcement......Page 226
10.2.3.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Method of Determining Moisture Content......Page 228
10.3.2.1 Electrical Nature of Concrete......Page 229
10.3.2.2 Mechanism of Reinforcement Corrosion......Page 231
10.3.3 Electrical Properties of Concrete......Page 232
10.3.4.1 Capacitance Instruments for Measuring Moisture Content......Page 234
10.3.4.3 Resistivity and Pavement Thickness......Page 235
10.3.4.4 Electrical Resistance Probe for Reinforcement Corrosion......Page 237
10.3.4.5 Half-Cell Potential Measurements......Page 238
10.3.4.6 Polarization Resistance and Reinforcement Corrosion......Page 239
References......Page 240
11.1 Introduction......Page 243
11.2.1 Electrolytic Cell......Page 245
11.2.2 Electrical Potential......Page 246
11.2.3 Polarization......Page 247
11.3 Corrosion of Steel in Concrete......Page 248
11.4 Half-Cell Potential Method......Page 251
11.4.1 Data Analysis......Page 253
11.5 Concrete Resistivity......Page 255
11.6.1 Principle......Page 258
11.6.2 Instrumentation......Page 259
11.6.3 Limitations......Page 261
11.7 Summary......Page 262
References......Page 263
Notation......Page 265
12.1 Introduction......Page 267
12.2.1 Source, Interaction, and Detection......Page 268
12.3.1 Historical Background......Page 270
12.3.2 Test Equipment and Procedures......Page 272
12.3.3.1 Static Gamma Radiometry on Conventional PCC and RCC Pavements......Page 275
12.3.3.2 Dynamic Gamma Radiometry on Pavements......Page 276
12.3.4 Advantages and Limitations......Page 277
12.4.1 Historical Background......Page 278
12.4.2 Test Equipment and Procedures......Page 279
12.4.3 Case Histories......Page 280
12.4.3.1 X- and Neutron Radiography for Microcracking......Page 281
12.4.3.2 X- and Gamma Radiography for Macrostructure......Page 283
12.4.4 Advantages and Limitations......Page 284
12.5.2 Test Equipment, Procedures, and Case History......Page 285
References......Page 286
13.1 Introduction......Page 289
13.2.1 Behavior of Microwave at the Interface of Two Different Materials......Page 290
13.3 Instrumentation......Page 292
13.4.1.2 Test Procedures......Page 295
13.4.1.3 Interpretation of Radar Signals......Page 296
13.4.2 Determination of the Degree of Hydration of Cement......Page 298
13.4.2.2 Test Procedures......Page 299
13.4.2.3 Example Test Data......Page 300
13.4.2.4 Advantages and Limitations......Page 301
13.4.3.2 Test Procedures......Page 302
13.4.3.4 Advantages and Limitations......Page 304
13.4.4.2 Test Procedure......Page 305
13.4.4.4 Advantages and Limitations......Page 306
13.6 Conclusions......Page 307
References......Page 308
14.1 Introduction......Page 311
14.2.2 Wave Speed......Page 312
14.2.3 Reflection and Refraction......Page 313
14.3.1.1 Principle......Page 316
14.3.1.2 Signal Processing......Page 317
14.3.1.4 Applications......Page 318
14.3.2.2 Signal Analysis......Page 320
14.3.2.3 Instrumentation......Page 325
14.3.2.4 Applications......Page 326
14.3.3.2 Signal Processing......Page 330
14.3.3.4 Applications......Page 331
14.3.4.1 Principle......Page 333
14.3.4.2 Signal Processing......Page 335
14.3.4.3 Instrumentation......Page 336
14.3.4.4 Applications......Page 337
14.4 Summary......Page 338
References......Page 340
15.1 Introduction......Page 345
15.2 Historical Background......Page 346
15.3 Theoretical Considerations......Page 347
15.4 Testing Equipment......Page 348
15.5 Testing Procedures......Page 350
15.6 Case Histories......Page 352
15.7 Advantages and Limitations......Page 355
References......Page 357
16.1 Introduction......Page 359
16.2 Historical Background......Page 360
16.3 Theoretical Considerations......Page 361
16.4 Evaluation of Acoustic Emission Signals......Page 362
16.5 Instrumentation and Test Procedures......Page 364
16.6.3 Signal Attenuation......Page 366
16.7.2 Type of Cracks......Page 367
16.7.4 Strength vs. Acoustic Emission Relationships......Page 368
16.7.7 High Alumina Cement......Page 370
16.7.10 Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel in Concrete......Page 371
16.9 Conclusions......Page 372
References......Page 373
B......Page 377
C......Page 378
I......Page 379
N......Page 380
P......Page 381
R......Page 382
S......Page 384
T......Page 385
X......Page 386