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دانلود کتاب Handbook of X-ray and Gamma-ray Astrophysics
دانلود کتاب کتاب راهنمای اخترفیزیک پرتو ایکس و پرتو گاما
مشخصات کتاب
Handbook of X-ray and Gamma-ray Astrophysics
ویرایش: 2024
نویسندگان: Cosimo Bambi (editor). Andrea Santangelo (editor)
سری: Springer Nature Reference
ISBN (شابک) : 9811969590, 9789811969591
ناشر: Springer
سال نشر: 2024
تعداد صفحات: 5912
زبان: English
فرمت فایل : PDF (درصورت درخواست کاربر به PDF، EPUB یا AZW3 تبدیل می شود)
حجم فایل: 139 مگابایت
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Preface Contents About the Editors Section Editors Contributors Part I Introduction to X-ray Astrophysics 1 A Chronological History of X-ray Astronomy Missions Contents Introduction The Early Years of X-Ray Astronomy Rockets and Balloons in the 1960s and 1970s Rockets Balloons Uhuru and the Others, Opening the Age of the Satellites in the Early 1970s Uhuru Apollo 15 and Apollo 16 SAS-3 Heao-1 The Late 1970s and the 1980s: The Program in the USA Einstein The Late 1970s and the 1980s: The Program in Europe Copernicus ans Ariel V Cos-b ariel VI exosat Late 1970s and the 1980s: The Program in Japan hakucho Hinotori tenma Ginga The Late 1970s and the 1980s: The Program in Russia and India filin/salyut-4 skr-02m xvantimir aryabhata bhaskara The Golden Age of X-Ray Astronomy, From the 1990s to the Present The Program in the USA ulysses bbxrt Rxte usa onboard argos The Program in Europe rosat Bepposax The Program in Japan asca suzaku hitomi The Program in Russia and India granat irs-p3 Conclusions Cross-References Appendix 1. List of the Rrockets Launched from 1957 to 1970 Appendix 2. List of the Balloon Missions Launched by the MIT Group Appendix 3. List of the Balloon Missions Launched by Worldwide Institution Appendix 4. Balloons Flown by AIT and MPI Appendix 5. Transatlantic Balloons References Part II Optics for X-ray Astrophysics 2 X-ray Optics for Astrophysics: A Historical Review Contents Introduction Early Days of X-Ray Astronomy The Benefit of X-Ray Optics Signal to Noise Advantage Large Dynamic Range and Less Source Confusion Use of High-Performance Detectors The Challenges of Fabricating X-Ray Optics X-Ray Reflection Optical Configuration Requirements on Figure and Surface Trades in Mirror Fabrication Approaches Overview of Fabrication Techniques Full Shell Optics Direct Replication Segmented Optics Chronological List of Mission with X-Ray Optics Early Days 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s 2020s Future Conclusion References 3 Geometries for Grazing Incidence Mirrors Contents Introduction Origin and Adoption of the Wolter I Design Geometry of Wolter I Nesting Consideration Practical Considerations for a Wolter I Telescope Geometry of Conically Approximated Wolter I Impact of Figure and Other Fabrication Errors on Angular Resolution Geometry of Parabolic Optic, Single-Reflection Concentrator Wolter-Schwarzschild (WS) and Hyperboloid-Hyperboloid Telescopes X-Ray Optics Flown on Space Missions Polynomial Designs and Other Recent Innovations References 4 Lobster Eye X-ray Optics Contents Introduction Lobster Eye X-ray Optics Introduction Lobster Eye Telescopes Using Micro Pore Optics Introduction MPOs: Production and Design Design of a Narrow-Field-Optimized Lobster Eye Telescope Limitations of MPOs Current Missions BepiColombo SVOM Einstein Probe SMILE Lobster Eye Optics in MFO/Schmidt Arrangement Schmidt Objectives Substrates for Lobster Eye Lenses in Schmidt/MFO Arrangement The Application and the Future of Lobster Eye Telescopes in Schmidt Arrangements Lobster Eye Laboratory Modifications Hybrid Lobster Eye Space Experiments with Lobster Eye MFO X-ray Optics VZLUSAT-1 REX Rocket Experiment Kirkpatrick-Baez Optics K-B Systems in Astronomical Applications K-B as a Segmented Mirror K-B in Astronomical Telescopes: Recent Status and Future Plans Conclusion References 5 Single-Layer and Multilayer Coatings for Astronomical X-ray Mirrors Contents Introduction Theory X-Ray Reflection and Refraction Surface Roughness Materials Single-Layer Thin Film Materials Multilayer Thin Film Materials Coating and Instrument Design Single-Layer Design Multilayer Design Depositing Thin Film Coatings Characterization of Thin Film Coatings X-Ray Reflectometry Other Characterization Techniques Environmental Stability Stress in Single and Multilayer Coatings Stress Measurement Methods The Stoney Equation A Method of In Situ Stress Measurement Contributions of Stress in Single-Layer Films Effect of Adatom Mobility Stress Reversal Methods of Reducing Film Stress Stress in Multilayer Thin Films The Effect of Surface Energy on Film Stress References 6 Silicon Pore Optics Contents Introduction SPO Concept Potential and Limitations of SPO SPO Realization Production of SPO Mirror Plates Development of Coatings Cleaning and Activation Stacking of Mirror Plates Stacking Robots Mirror Modules Ruggedisation X-Ray Characterization SPO Stack Characterization XOU and MM Characterization Athena Introduction Optical Design Design and Expected Performance for the Athena Optics Effective Area Vignetting Mirror Module Alignment Mirror Assembly X-Ray Characterization Summary and Conclusions References 7 Miniature X-ray Optics for Meter-Class Focal Length Telescopes Contents Introduction Existing X-Ray Optics Technology Leveraged for MiXO Micropore Optics Electroformed-Nickel-Replicated Optics Design, Development, and Challenges in Miniature X-Ray Optics Wolter Optics Design and Modeling Ray Tracing ENR and Metal-Ceramic Hybrid MiXO Recent X-Ray Tests and Results Testing MiXO Optics Performance of ENR MiXO Mission Concepts Using Miniature X-Ray Optics Mercury Imaging X-Ray Spectrometer Onboard BepiColombo Lunar X-Ray Imaging Spectrometer (LuXIS) SmallSat Exosphere Explorer of Hot Jupiters (SEEJ) SmallSat Solar X-Ray Activity and Axion X-Ray Imager (SSAXI) Conclusion References 8 Diffraction-Limited Optics and Techniques Contents Introduction Focal Length Diffraction-Limited X-Ray Optics Reflecting Optics Transmitting Optics X-Ray Lens Design and Performance Zone Plates Interferometers An X-Ray Interferometer A Slatted Mirror The Fringe Pattern Simulation of One-Dimensional Imaging Tolerances, Alignment, and Adjustment An X-Ray Interferometer with Focusing Proposed X-Ray Interferometers Cross-References References 9 Collimators for X-ray Astronomical Optics Contents Introduction Stray Light and Baffle Design Classification of the Stray Light No Reflection Primary-Only Reflection Secondary-Only Reflection Backside Reflection Advanced Analytical Treatment Design of the Stray-Light Baffle XMM-Newton Suzaku and Hitomi Suzaku Pre-collimator Optical Tuning On-Ground and In-Orbit X-Ray Calibrations Hitomi Pre-collimator eROSITA Future Missions Conclusion References 10 Technologies for Advanced X-ray Mirror Fabrication Contents Introduction X-Ray Mirror Fabrication: Fundamentals Manufacturing Methodologies X-Ray Mirror Manufacture and Technology Angular Resolution Versus Effective Area Production Drivers for Future X-Ray Telescopes Evaluating Optical Surfaces Terminology: Basics Terminology: Optical Surface Materials Section Review Subtractive Polishing: General Polishing: Robotic Ion Beam Figuring Subtractive: Silicon Silicon Pore Optics Monocrystalline Silicon Meta-shell X-Ray Optics Formative Electroforming Slumping Differential Deposition Fabricative Active/Adjustable Optics Additive Additive Manufacture Conclusion References 11 Diffraction Gratings for X-ray Astronomy Contents Introduction: Diffraction Gratings General Considerations Physical Principles Astrophysical Application Implementation on Focusing X-Ray Telescopes: Slitless Spectrometers, the Rowland Circle, and Variable Line Density Gratings Examples from Chandra and XMM-Newton Manufacturing Techniques Innovative Gratings: Off-Plane Reflection Gratings and the Critical Angle Transmission Grating Off-Plane Reflection Gratings: High Dispersion and High Efficiency The Critical Angle Transmission Grating: High Efficiency Combined with Generic Simplicity of a Transmission Grating Future Diffraction Grating X-Ray Spectrometers ARCUS Lynx References 12 Active X-ray Optics for Astronomy Contents Introduction Corrections with Active Optics Improving Mirror Figure Active Mounting and Alignment Prescription Switching Characterizing Corrections During Calibration and Flight Actuator Technologies External Bonded Actuators Thin-Film Actuators Magnetic Smart Material (MSM) Optics Assessing Correctability Finite-Element Modeling Influence Functions Wavefront Reconstruction Calculating Theoretical Correctability Metrology and Model Assessment Mission-Level Applications of Active X-ray Optics Gen-X SMART-X Lynx Conclusion References 13 Facilities for X-ray Optics Calibration Contents Introduction X Versus UV Light Source Distance Vacuum Europe The PANTER X-Ray Test Facility at MPE (Germany) The XACT Facility at Palermo (Italy) The Leicester Long Beamline Test Facility (UK) The IKI 60 m X-ray Facility (Russia) United States X-ray and Cryogenic Facility at MSFC (Huntsville, AL) The 100-m X-ray Facility at MSFC (Huntsville, AL) The 100-m X-ray Beamline at NASA GSFC (Greenbelt, MD) The 47-m X-ray Beamline at PSU (University Park, PA) Asia The ISAS 30m X-ray Pencil Beamline (Japan) The IHEP 100m X-ray Testing Facility (China) Synchrotron Radiation Facilities Remarks Concerning Existing X-ray Facilities Future Facilities BEaTriX at INAF-OABrera (Italy) The Vertical X-ray Raster-Scan Facility (Italy) References 14 Charge Coupled Devices Contents Introduction CCD Sensor Architectures for X-Ray Imaging Principles of Operation Architectures Key X-Ray CCD Sensor Performance Characteristics Charge Collection Depletion Depth Charge Transfer Read Noise Dark Current Scientific Instrument Performance Characteristics Spectral Resolution Detection Efficiency Spatial Resolution Time Resolution Instrumental Background and Mitigation Radiation Damage TID Effects TNID Effects Mitigation Flight Systems and Performance Over Time Chandra-ACIS, Suzaku, and OSIRES REX XMM-Newton and E2V Heritage CCDs XMM-Newton PN CCD and EROSITA MAXI and HITOMI In-Flight Resolution Instrumental Background Micrometeorite Damage Molecular Contamination Missions in Development CCD Technology Under Development Conclusion References Part III Detectors for X-ray Astrophysics 15 X-ray Detectors for Astrophysics Contents Introduction The Detection of Photons Interaction with Matter Detection of Photons Scintillation Photons Electron-Ion Pairs Electron-Hole Pairs Quasiparticles Phonons X-Ray Detectors Detector Properties Compatibility with Space Missions Overview of Detectors Scintillators Proportional Chambers Microchannel Plates Silicon-Based Detectors Si-PIN Diodes Silicon Strip Detectors Silicon Drift Detectors Charge Coupled Devices Active Pixel Sensors High-Z Semiconductors Superconducting Tunnel Junctions Microcalorimeters Polarization Sensitive Gas Detectors Detectors Based on the Compton Effect Detector Performance and Applications Conclusion and Outlook Cross-References References 16 Proportional Counters and Microchannel Plates Contents Introduction Proportional Counters Photon Interaction via the Photoelectric Effect Gas Multiplication and Energy Resolution Detection Efficiency and Response Function Time Resolution, Dead Time, and Rate Limitation Operation in Space: Background and Lifetime Imaging Proportional Counters Position Resolution Imaging Proportional Counters in X-ray Astronomy Micropattern Gas Detectors and X-ray Polarimetry Microchannel Plate Detectors Channel Electron Multipliers Microchannel Plates Operation of MCPs in Detectors Quantum Detection Efficiency Position-Sensitive Readout, Spatial, and Temporal Resolution Applications in EUV and X-ray Astronomy Future Prospects Cross-References References 17 Silicon Drift Detectors Contents Introduction Basics of Silicon Detector The Silicon Substrate Material Detector Manufacturing, the Planar Process The P-N Junction Signal and Leakage Current Silicon Drift Detectors X-ray Spectroscopy with Large-Area SDD Optimization of the Large-Area SDD Design for Low-Energy X-rays Surface Control: Pitch and Punch-Through Power Consumption Quantum Efficiency Prototype Production and Experimental Results Surface Control and Leakage Current Quantum Efficiency Improvement Tests Anode Pitch Optimization Radiation Damage Dopant Inhomogeneity SDD Characterization for Space Operation Drift Detector Pixels Matrices of Drift Detector Pixels XGIS and Large SDD Pixel Matrixes Conclusions References 18 CMOS Active Pixel Sensors Contents Introduction Overview of CMOS Technology Hybrid Sensors Silicon-on-Insulator 3D Technologies Monolithic Sensors Flight Opportunities Conclusions References 19 DEPFET Active Pixel Sensors Contents Introduction Detector Concept DEPFET Principle Photon Interaction Charge Collection Steering and Readout Electronics Operation Performance Characteristics Energy Resolution Performance Degradation in Space Example Case: ATHENA WFI Detector Calibration Outlook for DEPFET Options Linear Gate Layout Prevention of Energy Misfits Conclusion Cross-References References 20 Transition-Edge Sensors for Cryogenic X-ray Imaging Spectrometers Contents Introduction Theoretical and Experimental Background Basic Principles TES Electrical and Thermal Response Negative Electrothermal Feedback Fundamental Noise Sources Non-linearity Pulse Processing Detector Design TES Properties Thermal Isolation Absorber Design and Properties Current State of the Art Physics of the Superconducting Transition The Superconducting Transition Josephson Effects in DC- and AC-Biased TESs Implication of the Weak-Link Behaviour on the Detector Noise Detector Calibration Considerations Response Function Energy Scale and Sensitivity to Environmental Fluctuations Drift Correction Algorithms Multi-Pixel TESs Applications and Future Technology Needs Ground-Based Instrumentation Next-Generation Space Mission Concepts References 21 Signal Readout for Transition-Edge Sensor X-ray Imaging Spectrometers Contents Introduction Basic Concepts of Signal Readout Impedance Matching dc Superconducting Quantum Interference Device (DC-SQUID) Principles of Multiplexed Readout of X-ray TES Microcalorimeters Why Is Multiplexed Readout Necessary? General Considerations Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) Principles of TDM Operation Circuit Parameters, Multiplexing Factor, and Noise Scaling Room-Temperature Electronics Laboratory TDM Systems Optimizations for Space Flight: Athena X-IFU MHz Frequency-Domain Multiplexing (FDM) Room-Temperature Electronics Lithographic LC Filter Demonstrations Demonstration Model of Focal Plane Assembly of Athena X-IFU Microwave-SQUID Multiplexing (mux) Flux-Ramp Modulation mux Readout Noise mux Crosstalk mux Optimization for X-ray Applications Example mux Systems Summary and Future Prospects Cross-References References 22 Introduction to Photoelectric X-ray Polarimeters Contents Introduction Historical Context The Statistical Demands of Astronomical Polarimetry Polarization Sensitivity of the Photoelectric Interaction Photoelectric Polarimetry with MPGD Track Imagers Photoelectron Track Image Quality Data Analysis Techniques MPGD Photoelectric Polarimeter Implementations References 23 Gas Pixel Detectors for Photoelectric X-ray Astronomical Polarimetry Contents Introduction The Driver to the Design and the Historic Evolution The Baseline Polarimeter The Analysis of the Photoelectron Track The Performances: Efficiency, Space Resolution, Energy Resolution, Spurious Modulation, and Modulation Factor Advantages of the GPD Design Issues of the Current GPD Design An Outlook to the Future Conclusion References 24 Time Projection Chamber X-ray Polarimeters Contents Introduction Photoelectron Track Imaging with a Micropattern TPC Design and Operational Considerations Component-Level Considerations Drift Field in the Conversion Region Multiplication Stage Induction Gap and Induction Field Anode Readout Strips Readout Electronics Instrument-Level Considerations Calibration Rotation Detector Lifetime TPC Polarimeter Implementations The PRAXyS TPC Polarimeter PRAXyS TPC Polarimeter Components PRAXyS Active Volume/Drift Region PRAXyS Gas Electron Multipliers PRAXyS Induction Gap PRAXyS Readout Electrodes PRAXyS Readout Electronics and Signal Processing PRAXyS TPC Polarimeter Performance PRAXyS Polarization Sensitivity PRAXyS Background PRAXyS Systematic Errors PRAXyS Mission Capabilities The Hard X-ray Photoelectric Polarimeter A Wide Field-of-View Polarimeter for X-ray Transients Other NITPC Polarimeter Implementations Conclusion Cross-References References 25 Compton Polarimetry Contents Introduction Definitions and Useful Formulae Polarimeter Design General Concept of a Compton Scattering Polarimeter Readout Sensors for Scattering Polarimeters Single-Phase Scattering Polarimeters Dual-Phase Scattering Polarimeters Electronics Systematic Effects and Calibration Background Estimation and Mitigation Operational Issues Conclusions and Future Perspectives Cross-References References 26 In-Orbit Background for X-ray Detectors Contents Introduction The Space Environment for a X-Ray Mission Orbits and Their Characteristics The Geomagnetic Field and the Radiation Belts Trapped Particles Solar Particles Cosmic Rays Neutron Albedo Radiation Cosmic X-Ray Diffuse Background Galactic Diffuse Emission Earth Gamma Ray Albedo Radiation Radiation Effects on Detectors Radiation Damage Scientific Background Effects Photon Background Charged Particles Activation Background Simulation, Mitigation, and Evaluation Strategies The Monte Carlo Approach Mitigation Strategies Onboard or On-Ground Evaluation Summary and Conclusions References 27 Filters for X-ray Detectors on Space Missions Contents Introduction Overview of Filters on Space X-Ray Observatories Functional Goals Requirements and Design Drivers Materials and Technologies Performance Modeling X-Ray Transmission UV/VIS/IR Transmission Mechanical and Thermal Analysis Characterization Techniques X-Ray Transmission Spectroscopy and Imaging UV/VIS/IR Spectroscopy X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy Radio Frequency Shielding Effectiveness Imaging and Microscopy Environmental Tests Mechanical Loads Calibration Future Perspectives References 28 Silicon Strip Detectors Contents Introduction General Properties of Silicon Strip Detector Energy Resolution of Silicon Strip Detector Development of Double-Sided Silicon Strip Detector for X-Ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Performance of Double-Sided Silicon Strip Detector for Focusing Optics X-Ray Solar Imager Performance of Hard X-Ray Imager Onboard Hitomi Satellite Overview of DSSD Onboard Hitomi Readout Noise Low Energy Threshold Energy Resolution Time Resolution and Dead Time Detection Efficiency Imaging Performance In-Orbit Background Summary of the Performance of the HXI DSSD Conclusion References Part IV X-ray Missions 29 The AstroSat Observatory Contents Introduction AstroSat: Configuration and Auxiliary Instruments The Attitude and Orbit Control System (AOCS) Timing Information Power Source Thermal Control The Bus Management Unit Data Storage and Handling Communications Systems Choice of Orbit Scientific Payload Ultraviolet Imaging Telescopes (UVIT) UVIT Filters UVIT Gratings UVIT Analysis Software Large-Area X-Ray Proportional Counters (LAXPC) LAXPC Data Analysis Soft X-Ray Focusing Telescope (SXT) SXT Data Analysis Cadmium–Zinc–Telluride Imager (CZTI) CZTI Data Products and Analysis Scanning Sky Monitor (SSM) Charged Particle Monitor (CPM) Conclusions References 30 The BepiColombo Mercury Imaging X-ray Spectrometer Contents Introduction The Mercury Imaging X-Ray Spectrometer (MIXS) Optics MIXS-T Design MIXS-C Design Detectors and Electronics MIXS Performance Calibration and Data Analysis The Grain Size Effect The Phase Angle Effect Numerical Simulation of Regolith Effects Future Work Towards a New Semi-analytical Computational Solution Complementing Planetary Spectroscopy at Ultraviolet, Visible, and Near-Infrared Light Ground Calibration Summary of Ground-Based Activities The Solar Intensity X-Ray and Particle Spectrometer (SIXS) Technical Specification X-Ray Detection System The Particle Detection System Performance X-Ray Detection System Particle Detection System Science Objectives MIXS Scientific Requirements Mercury as an X-Ray Target The Sun as an X-Ray Source Particle-Induced Signals MIXS Science Objectives Global Coverage Spatially Resolved Measurements Particle-Induced X-Ray Fluorescence Science Operations SIXS Scientific Requirements Consortia and Data Rights Instrument Consortia Data Rights Opportunities from MIXS X-Ray Navigation Einstein Probe SVOM SMILE Outer Solar System Auroral Imager Conclusions and Outlook References 31 The Chandra X-ray Observatory Contents Introduction Building Chandra Brief History, Including Initial Design Concept Restructured Mission Ground Calibration Launch The Chandra X-ray Observatory (Chandra) The Spacecraft The Telescope High Resolution Mirror Assembly (HRMA) High Energy Transmission Grating (HETG) Low Energy Transmission Grating (LETG) The Science Instruments The Advanced CCD Imaging Spectrometer (ACIS) The High Resolution Camera (HRC) The Chandra X-ray Center (CXC) Science Selection Mission Planning Operations Data Processing Data Analysis: CIAO The Chandra Archive Chandra Source Catalog, CSC Chandra\'s Impact on Science and the Public Chandra\'s Science Impact Chandra\'s Worldwide Impact Chandra\'s Future Evolving Science Aging Spacecraft References 32 The HaloSat and PolarLight CubeSat Missions for X-ray Astrophysics Contents Introduction HaloSat Scientific Goals Mission and Operations Design Science Instrument Development and Calibration Science Results Data Archive PolarLight Detector Payload Performance Operation On-Orbit Background Science Results Conclusions and Discussion References 33 The Einstein Probe Mission Contents Introduction Background Scientific Motivations The Einstein Probe Mission Science Objectives New Technologies Employed Lobster-Eye Micro-pore Optics CMOS Detectors Scientific Instruments Wide-Field X-Ray Telescope Design of WXT Performance of WXT Follow-Up X-Ray Telescope Design of FXT Performance of FXT Satellite and Mission Profile Satellite System Onboard Data Processing and Triggering Science Operation Communications Ground Segment and Science Data References 34 The Enhanced X-ray Timing and Polarimetry Mission: eXTP Contents Introduction Science Case and Scientific Requirements The Science Payload Spectroscopy Focusing Array Large Area Detector Polarimetry Focusing Array Wide Field Monitor Mission Overview Observation Concept Appendix Equation of State of Ultra-Dense Matter: Requirements Flow Strong Field Gravity: Requirements Flow Strong Magnetism: Requirements Flow Cross-References References 35 HERMES-Pathfinder Contents Introduction HERMES-Pathfinder Payload Detector System Electronic Boards Front-End Electronic (FEE) Boards Back-End Electronic (BEE) Board Power Supply Unit (PSU) Payload Data Handling Unit (PDHU) Onboard Firmware and Software Data Handling HERMES-Pathfinder Service Module HERMES-Pathfinder Performance Conclusion References 36 The Hard X-ray Imager (HXI) on the Advanced Space-based Solar Observatory (ASO-S) Contents Introduction Hard X-Ray Imager HXI Design HXI Grids HXI Detectors HXI SAS System HXI Imaging Simulations Beam Tests Summary References 37 The Hard X-ray Modulation Telescope Contents Introduction Overview of the Insight-HXMT Mission Scientific Instruments The High Energy X-Ray Telescope The High Energy Detector (HED) Automatic Gain Control Detector (HGC) Anti-coincidence Detector (HVT) Particle Monitor (HPM) The Medium Energy X-Ray Telescope Medium Energy Detector Box Si-PIN Detector Readout Electronics and the Application of ASIC Technology The Low Energy X-Ray Telescope LE Detector Readout Electronics Performance and Response of the Instruments Response and Performance of the High Energy X-Ray Telescope Pulse Shape Discrimination Non-proportionality of NaI and the Energy-Channel (E-C) Relation Energy Resolution Detection Efficiency Response and Performance of the Medium Energy X-Ray Telescope E-C Relation Energy Resolution Quantum Efficiency Dead Time Response and Performance of the Low Energy X-Ray Telescope E-C Relationship Readout Noise and Energy Resolution Quantum Efficiency Time Response Summary References 38 MAXI: Monitor of All-Sky X-ray Image Contents MAXI Mission GSC Gas Counter Electronics Background in Orbit SSC X-Ray CCD and Its Function Cooling System In-Orbit Performance SSC All-Sky Map MAXI Data Flow and Nova-Alert System Data Flow MAXI/GSC Nova-Alert System Nova-Search System Alert System Scientific Highlights X-Ray Bursts and Stellar Flares X-Ray Novae and Short-Lived Transients Extragalactic Transients and MAXI Catalogs References 39 NICER: The Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer Contents Introduction Instrument Description X-Ray Timing Instrument X-Ray Concentrators X-Ray Detector System Pointing System Avionics and ISS Interfaces On-Orbit Operations Operational Status, Software, and Calibration Pulsar Navigation Demonstration Guest Observer Program The Guest Observer Facility (GOF) Guest Observer Science Main Science Results The Interior Composition of Neutron Stars Accretion and Jet Evolution in Black Hole Binaries Future Activities and Conclusion References 40 Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager (RHESSI) Contents Introduction Objectives Design and Capabilities Spectroscopy Dynamic Range Imaging Rotating Modulation Collimators Imaging Concept Image Reconstruction RHESSI Imaging Example Scientific Legacy Discovery of Gamma-Ray Footpoint Structures Energy Content and Spectrum of Flare Energetic Electrons Non-thermal Emissions from the Corona and Bulk Energization Double Coronal X-Ray Sources Initial Downward Motion of X-Ray Sources Microflares and the Quiet Sun Timing of HXR Flare Ribbons Location of Super-hot X-Ray Sources The Photosphere as a Compton Mirror Broadened 511-keV Positron Annihilation Line Solar Oblateness Magnetar Timing and Spectroscopy Terrestrial Gamma-Ray Flashes (TGFs) Conclusions References 41 The SMILE Mission Contents Introduction How We Got to SMILE: SMILE Precursor Missions Scientific Payload The Soft X-Ray Imager (SXI) The UltraViolet Imager (UVI) The Light Ion Analyzer (LIA) The Magnetometer (MAG) Spacecraft, Orbit, Mission Design, and Operations The SMILE Spacecraft Spacecraft Integration and Testing Orbit and Mission Design Operations and Ground Segment SMILE Science Working Groups, Science Working Team, and Consortium SMILE Science Working Groups (SWGs) Science Operations WG In Situ WG Data Formats WG Ground-Based and Additional Science WG Outreach WG Modeling WG SMILE Science Working Team (SWT) and Consortium Data Policy SMILE Impact and Legacy Conclusion References 42 The Spectrometer Telescope for Imaging X-rays (STIX) on Solar Orbiter Contents Introduction Scientific Objectives Instrument Design and Description The Entrance Window Imaging Concept Imaging System Aspect System Detector/Electronics Module (DEM) Detectors X-Ray Attenuator Onboard Binning Calibration The First Scientific Results and Future Potential The First Results from Cruise Phase Micro-flare Observations The First Imaging Results from Different Perspectives Imaging Spectroscopy with STIX A Stereoscopic Potential: Measuring X-ray Directivity STIX Data Access References 43 Space-Based Multi-band Astronomical Variable Objects Monitor (SVOM) Contents Introduction The SVOM Mission Profile Scientific Instruments Gamma-Ray Monitor ECLAIRs Microchannel X-Ray Telescope Visible Telescope Ground Wide Angle Cameras (GWAC) Ground Follow-Up Telescopes (GFTs) Observing Programs Conclusion References 44 The Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory Contents Introduction Swift Instruments Burst Alert Telescope Technical Description BAT Operations Instrument Performance X-Ray Telescope (XRT) Technical Description XRT Operations Instrument Performance UV/Optical Telescope Technical Description UVOT Operations UVOT Instrument Performance Ground System, Operations, and Data Processing Ground System Operations Data Processing BAT Pipeline and Survey XRT Pipeline UVOT Pipeline Science Highlights Conclusion References 45 IXPE: The Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer Contents Review of Scientific Objectives Requirements and Criteria Payload Description The Mirror Module Assemblies Design, Fabrication, and Assembly Thermal Requirements Environmental Testing X-Ray Calibration Coilable Boom, Tip/Tilt/Rotate System, and X-Ray Shields The Instrument The Detector Units The Gas Pixel Detectors The Calibration Set and the Filter and Calibration Wheel The Detector Service Unit The Telescope Calibration Effective Area and Half-Power Diameter Measurement of the Modulation Factor Measurement of the Spurious Modulation Data Analysis Event Reconstruction Calibration and Removal of Spurious Effects Event Weighting Detector Response and High-Level Science Analysis The IXPE Spacecraft IXPE Operation, Expected Performance, and Science Operation Review of Performance Specific Examples of IXPE Science Microquasars Pulsar Wind Nebulae Magnetars Supermassive Black Holes Conclusion Cross-References References 46 XMM-Newton Contents Introduction The Spacecraft X-Ray Mirrors European Photon Imaging Camera (EPIC) The Instrument Scientific Performance The Reflection Grating Spectrometers (RGSs) The Instrument Scientific Performance Optical Monitor (OM) The Instrument Scientific Performance Organization of the XMM-Newton Ground Segment Observing with XMM-Newton Scientific Data and Analysis Scientific Strategy and Impact Authors Contribution References Part V Optics and Detectors for Gamma-Ray Astrophysics 47 Telescope Concepts in Gamma-Ray Astronomy Contents Introduction Historical Perspective First Observations Missions 1960–1990 The ``MeV Sensitivity\'\' Gap Interactions of Light with Matter Instrument Capabilities and Requirements Earth\'s Atmosphere and Space Environment Atmospheric Effects In-Space Observations Orbit Considerations Instrumental Background Variations of the Background Background as a Function of Energy Background Suppression Anticoincidence Shields Pulse Shape Discrimination Tailored Data Selections Astrophysical Sources of Gamma Rays: Not One Fits All Instrument Designs General Considerations: A Gamma-Ray Collimator Temporal and Spatial Modulation Apertures, Geometry Optics: Coded Mask Telescopes Quantum Optics in the MeV: Compton Telescopes Quantum Optics for Higher Energies: Pair Tracking Telescopes Scattering Information: Gamma-Ray Polarimeters Other Apertures: Combinations and Wave Optics Coded Mask Compton Telescopes Reflective Optics for Gamma-Rays Diffractive Optics Interplanetary Network Gamma-Ray Detectors Understanding Gamma-Ray Measurements Simulations Calibrations MeV: Radioactive Sources GeV: Particle Accelerators Gamma-Ray Polarimetry Outlook and Conclusion Cross-References References 48 Coded Mask Instruments for Gamma-Ray Astronomy Contents Introduction Basics Principles of Coded Mask Imaging Definitions and Main Properties Coding and Decoding: The Case of Optimum Systems Historical Developments and Mask Patterns Patterns Based on Cyclic Different Sets Other Optimum Patterns Real Systems and Random Patterns Image Reconstruction and Analysis Reconstruction Methods Deconvolution by Correlation in the Extended FOV Detector Binning and Resolution: Fine, Delta, and Weighted Decoding Image Analysis Significance of Detection System Point Spread Function Flux and Location Errors Non-uniform Background and Detector Response Overall Analysis Procedure, Iterative Cleaning, and Mosaics Coded Mask System Performances Sensitivity and Imaging Efficiency Angular Resolution Point Source Localization Accuracy Sensitivity Versus Localization Accuracy Coded Mask Instruments for High-Energy Astronomy First Experiments on Rockets and Balloons Coded Mask Instruments on Satellites SIGMA on GRANAT: The First Gamma-Ray Coded Mask Instrument on a Satellite IBIS on INTEGRAL: The Most Performant Gamma-Ray Coded Mask Instrument IBIS Data Analysis and Imaging Performance ECLAIRs on SVOM: The Next Coded Mask Instrument in Space Summary and Conclusions References 49 Laue and Fresnel Lenses Contents Introduction Laue Lenses Laue Lenses Basic Principles: Bragg\'s Law Crystal Diffraction Ideal and Mosaic Crystals Diffraction Efficiency Extinction Effects Focusing Elements Classical Perfect Crystals Classical Mosaic Crystals Crystals with Curved Lattice Planes Laue Lens Optimization Crystal Selection Narrow- and Broadband Laue Lenses Tunable Laue Lens Multiple Layer Laue Lenses Flux Concentration and Imaging Properties of Laue Lenses Technological Challenges I. Production of Proper Crystals and Substrate II a. Crystal Mounting Methods and Accuracy II b. Laue Lens Alignment Examples of Laue Lens Projects The CLAIRE Balloon Project (2001) The MAX Project (2006) GRI: The Gamma-Ray Imager (2007) ASTENA: An Advanced Surveyor of Transient Events and Nuclear Astrophysics (2019) Fresnel Lenses Construction The Focal Length Problem Effective Area Chromatic Aberration Detector Issues for Focused Gamma Rays Conclusions Cross-References References 50 Compton Telescopes for Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Contents Introduction Physics of Compton Scattering Basic Operating Principles of Compton Telescopes The Classic Double-Scattering Compton Telescope Modern Compton Telescopes Electron-Tracking Dedicated Polarimeter Event Reconstruction Event Identification and Track Recognition Recoil Electron Track Reconstruction Compton Sequencing Two-Site Event Reconstruction Compton Telescope Performance Parameters Point Spread Function Angular Resolution Measure Scatter Plane Distribution Uncertainties in the Angular Resolution Doppler Broadening as a Lower Limit to the Angular Resolution Sensitivity Imaging Capabilities Polarization Capabilities Limitations and Challenges Background Radiation Notable Compton Telescope Designs Semiconductor-Based Compton Imagers Soft Gamma-Ray Detector on Hitomi The Compton Spectrometer and Imager Gaseous and Liquid Time-Projection Chambers Liquid Xenon Gamma-Ray Imaging Telescope Dedicated Polarimeters POLAR Compton and Pair Telescopes Medium Energy Gamma-Ray Astronomy Telescope Applications in Other Fields Conclusions Cross-References References 51 Grid-Based Imaging of X-rays and Gamma Rays with High Angular Resolution Contents Introduction Multi-Grid Collimators Generalities Multi-Grid Example Application: HXIS on SMM Bi-grid Systems: Fourier Imagers Generalities Bi-grid Example Application: Yohkoh/HXT\'s and ASO-S/HXI\'s Fixed Subcollimators with Sine/Cosine Components Bi-grid Example Application: Solar Orbiter/STIX\'s Fixed Subcollimators Using Moiré Patterns and Coarse Detectors Bi-grid Example Application: RHESSI\'s Rotating Modulation Collimators (RMCs) RHESSI Design The RHESSI Imaging Concept Single-Grid Imaging Systems Generalities Rotating Modulator (RM) Multi-Pitch Rotating Modulator (MPRM) Comparison with Coded-Aperture Imaging General Grid System Design Initial (``Optical\'\') design Diffraction Grid Manufacture Alignment, Aspect, and Calibration Bi-grid Collimators Systems with 2D Detectors Conclusions References 52 Pair Production Detectors for Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Contents Introduction Counter Detectors First-Generation Imaging Detectors Pioneering Balloon Instruments Satellite Instruments Second-Generation Imaging Detectors Advanced Balloon Instruments Second-Generation Imaging Satellite Instruments Third Generation: Solid-State Imaging Detectors Continuing Developments and the Future Conclusion Cross-References References 53 Readout Electronics for Gamma-Ray Astronomy Contents Introduction Fundamental Concepts Signal and Noise Chain Components Analog vs. Digital Pulse Processing Integrated vs. Discrete Implementations Readout Circuits Voltage Mode Charge Mode Current Mode: Negative Feedback Current Mode: Positive Feedback Conclusions References 54 Orbits and Background of Gamma-Ray Space Instruments Contents Introduction Orbits of Gamma-Ray Space Missions Low-Earth Orbits High-Earth, Highly Elliptical, and L1/L2 Orbits Stratospheric Balloon Experiments Background Components Extragalactic Gamma-Ray Emission Galactic Gamma-Ray Emission Galactic Cosmic Rays and Anomalous Cosmic Rays Protons and Alpha Particles Electrons and Positrons Solar Energetic Particles Secondary Particles in Low-Earth Orbits and the Stratosphere Secondary Protons Secondary Electrons and Positrons Secondary Gamma Rays (and X-Rays) Secondary Neutrons Particles Trapped in the Inner Van Allen Radiation Belt Delayed Background from Activation of Satellite Materials Conclusions Cross-References References 55 The Use of Germanium Detectors in Space Contents Introduction The Germanium as a Solid-State Detector for High Energy Radiation Detection Energy Measurement The Germanium Detector (GeD) Configurations Charge Carriers Inside the GeD: Speed-Trapping-Collection Implementation of Germanium Detector in View of Space Usage Thermal Constraints Irradiation by Heavy Particles, Detector Degradation, and Recovery Background Issue Energy Calibration Germanium Detectors for Astrophysics HEAO-3/HGRS: The First Space HPGeD Gamma-Ray Imaging Spectrometer (GRIS) Introduction Technical Description Isotopically Enriched Germanium Transient Gamma-Ray Spectrometer (TGRS) Onboard WIND : Hermetically Sealed Detectors Introduction Technical Description RHESSI : Segmented GeDs INTEGRAL/SPI: maintaining Ged more than 20 years in space COSI: In Development Use of Germanium Detectors in Planetary Science Benefits of Germanium Detectors for Planetary Composition Measurements Challenges for Using Germanium Detectors with Planetary Missions Summary of Planetary Germanium Detectors Instrumental Perspectives and conclusion Electronics and Digital Processing Cryogenics Germanium Detectors A 3D Germanium Focal Plane for a Hard X-Ray Telescope Conclusion References 56 Silicon Detectors for Gamma-Ray Astronomy Contents Introduction Principles of Silicon Detectors Photon Interactions in Silicon Silicon Semiconductors Detectors Characterizing Silicon Devices Noise in Silicon Detectors Radiation Damage Silicon Detector Technologies PIN Diode Detectors Strip Detectors Pixel Detectors Hybrid Pixel Detectors Gamma-Ray Telescopes Fermi Large-Area Telescope Fermi-LAT Tracker Testing and Calibration Fermi-LAT Tracker On-Orbit Performance AGILE The AGILE Silicon Tracker The AGILE Silicon Tracker Tests and Performance The Silicon Tracker Calibration Suzaku/HXD Hitomi Hard X-Ray Imager Soft Gamma-Ray Detector Technology Development for Future Gamma-Ray Missions Conclusions Cross-References References 57 Cd(Zn)Te Detectors for Hard X-ray and Gamma-ray Astronomy Contents Introduction Motivations for New Semiconductor Compounds for High Energy Astrophysics Basic Principles of Detection and Associated Challenges for Cn(Zn)Te Devices Material and Technologies Crystal Production Electrodes Fabrication Electrode Segmentation Interconnects Detectors Quantum Efficiency Spectroscopy Energy Conversion and Spectral Analysis Charge Collection Energy Resolution Detector Design for Spectral Performance Enhancement Imaging Charge Sharing Segmentation Geometries 3D Position-Sensitive Sensors Polarimetry Trade-Offs for the Design of a Detector CdTe Versus CZT Detector Geometry Readout Strategy Space Systems and Instruments Detection Planes for Indirect (or Multiplexing) Imaging Systems Focal Plane for Focusing Optics Compton Camera Radiation Damage Future Challenges Crystal Growth Detector Developments for Future Hard X-Ray Missions Detector Developments for Future Soft Gamma-Ray Missions Conclusion References 58 Scintillation Detectors in Gamma-Ray Astronomy Contents Introduction Basic Principles of Scintillating Detectors Inorganic Scintillators Scintillation Mechanism in Inorganic Scintillators Organic Scintillators Scintillation Mechanism in Organic Scintillators Gas Scintillators Neutron Detectors Radiation Hardness, Internal Background and Induced Radioactivity of Scintillators Radiation-Induced Degradation of Scintillators Creation of Defects Under Ionizing Radiation General Damage Properties in Scintillating Materials Under Gamma Radiation Phosphorescence Radio-Luminescence due to Produced Radioisotopes in Heavy and Light Scintillation Crystalline Materials Summary of Background Produced Effects in the Scintillator Photosensors Photo-Multipliers (PMT) Silicon Devices Photodiodes Photodiodes with Internal Amplification (Avalanche PD, SiPM) Scintillator-Photodetector Optical Coupling Basic Concept for Scintillator Detectors Signal Electronics System Scintillator Detectors Used in Space Observatories for Gamma-Ray Astronomy Background Noise in Gamma-Ray Telescopes Scintillator Detectors in Early Gamma-Ray Observatories Scintillator Detectors Used as Active Anti-Coincidence Detectors The Phoswich Technique Position Sensitive Techniques Scintillators in Pair-Production Based Telescopes: Calorimeters and Hodoscopes Scintillators in Compton Techniques Scintillators in Polarimetry Techniques Gas Scintillators Scintillating Detectors for Gamma-Ray Astronomy at Ground-Based Observatories Conclusions and Outlook for Scintillators in Gamma-Ray Astronomy References 59 Photodetectors for Gamma-Ray Astronomy Contents Introduction Photomultiplier Tubes Photocathodes Photoelectron Collection Efficiency Electron Multiplication Single-Photoelectron Response Timing Characteristics Dark Current and Dark Counts Afterpulses Energy Resolution Position-Sensitive Multi-Anode PMTs Environmental Considerations PMTs in Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescopes PMTs in Spaceborne Scintillation Detectors Photodiodes Silicon Photomultipliers Ground-Based Gamma-Ray Detectors Adopting SiPMs The SCT Camera The ASTRI-Horm Camera Space-Based Gamma-Ray Detectors Adopting SiPMs Current Missions GRID GECAM CAMELOT SIRI and SIRI-II Future Missions EIRSAT BurstCube Glowbug and MoonBEAM AMEGO-X and APT Silicon Drift Detector as scintillator photodetector Silicon Drift Detector Fundamentals for Scintillation Detection SDD-Based Detectors for Gamma-Ray Astronomy Applications Conclusions References 60 Time Projection Chambers for Gamma-Ray Astronomy Contents Introduction Charged Particles Production and Transport in a Medium Ionization Drift, Diffusion Negative Ion Technique Energy Measurements Magnetic Field Absolute Time Measurement Electron-Tracking Compton Camera with Gaseous Time-Projection Chamber How to Realize Complete Bijection Imaging for MeV Gamma Rays Background Rejection in ETCC Estimation of Sensitivity of ETCC in MeV Gamma Astronomy How to Obtain a Good PSF Development of ETCC SMILE-2+ Balloon Experiment Analysis for Background Reduction Future Prospects TPCs as Pair Telescopes Polarimetry with Pair Conversions and Multiple Scattering Past Experimental Achievements and Future Prospects HARPO AdEPT Liquid or Solid TPCs Effective Area Angular Resolution Sensitivity: Gas Choice Dense Phase TPCs LXeGRIT Liquid TPCs as High-Resolution Homogeneous Calorimeters Summary/Conclusions Cross-References List of Variables References 61 Gamma-Ray Polarimetry Contents Introduction Science Drivers of Gamma-Ray Polarimetry Scattering Polarimetry Basic Concepts Experimental Approaches Wide-Field Instruments 3D Instruments Collimated and Coded-Mask Instruments Focal Plane Instruments Pair Production Polarimetry Differential Cross-Section Polarization Asymmetry Multiple Scattering Polarimetry with Triplet Conversions Past Experimental Achievements Future Prospects Effective Area and Sensitivity Summary and Outlook Cross-References References 62 CubeSats for Gamma-Ray Astronomy Contents Introduction CubeSats as Platforms for In-Orbit Demonstration (IOD) of New Technologies The Science Case for High-Energy Astrophysics CubeSats GRBs and Multi-Messenger Astronomy Solar Flares Terrestrial Gamma-Ray Flashes Persistent Sources Instrumental Background Polarimetry Nuclear Lines Cosmic Diffuse Background Currently Operating Gamma-Ray CubeSats GRBAlpha/VZLUSAT-2 GRID LIGHT-1 MinXSS Gamma-Ray CubeSat Missions Under Development BurstCube EIRSAT-1 Gamma-Ray Module (GMOD) HERMES-Pathfinder MAMBO IMPRESS LECX Other Proposed Gamma-Ray CubeSat Concepts CubeSats for Bright Transients CubeSats for Gamma-Ray Polarimetry CubeSats for Gamma-Ray Line Studies CubeSats for General MeV Astrophysics Conclusions References 63 Gamma-Ray Detector and Mission Design Simulations Contents Introduction: Why We Do Simulations and How We Use Them Common Aspects of Simulations Astronomical Inputs, Sources, Fluxes, Backgrounds Detector Geometries Physics Input Extensive Air Showers Particle Interactions in the Detector Volume Detector Readout Event Reconstruction High-Level Data Analysis Performance Metrics Sensitivity Estimates Simulation Tools for Different Types of Instruments Simulating Energy Deposition in the Instrument Air Shower Simulations Ray Tracing Simulating Particles in Matter With Geant4 Simulating Detector Electronics Event Reconstruction Trade Studies and Instrument Design Figures of Merit and Sensitivity Metrics Examples of Trade Studies Using Simulations for Science IRFs: Instrument Response Characterization IRFs for Variable Observing Conditions Fast Simulations to Characterize Signal Significance Simulating Events Using IRFs Simulating Maps Using IRFs and Exposure Tables Simulation Verification and Limitations Summary Cross-References References Part VI Space-Based Gamma-Ray Observatories 64 The COMPTEL Experiment and Its In-Flight Performance Contents Introduction COMPTEL Basics Instrument Design Response Function Launch and Deployment The Orbit Observatory Operations In-Orbit Experiences Background Activation Prompt Background Results The Cosmic Diffuse Gamma Background Point-source Investigations Steady-State Source Sensitivity Transient Observations Neutron Measurements Conclusion References 65 The INTEGRAL Mission Contents Introduction: The INTEGRAL mission INTEGRAL Operations The IBIS Telescope The SPI Telescope SPI Pioneering: Recurrent Annealings SPI as a Polarimeter The INTEGRAL Monitors The Joint European X-Ray Monitor: JEM-X The Optical Monitoring Camera: OMC INTEGRAL Radiation Environment Monitor INTEGRAL Data Analysis The Coded Mask Imaging Process Data Analysis and Archiving at ISDC INTEGRAL In-Flight Calibration Imaging and Timing Calibrations Imaging Calibration Timing Calibration Energy Calibration IBIS SPI INTEGRAL Main Scientific Outcomes Nuclear Astrophysics, Pair Annihilation, and Galactic Diffuse Emission Death of Stars and Nucleosynthesis 56Ni and 56Co 44Ti 26Al Galactic Diffuse Emission Positron/Electron Annihilation on the Galactic Scale Accretion/Ejection Processes Close to Galactic Compact Objects Multi-messenger and Time Domain Astronomy Gravitational-Wave Events Ultrahigh-Energy Neutrino Events Fast Radio Bursts INTEGRAL View of the Extragalactic Sky Conclusions References 66 The AGILE Mission and Its Scientific Results Contents The AGILE Mission The AGILE Payload AGILE Scientific Performance The AGILE Silicon Tracker The AGILE Mini-calorimeter Super-AGILE: The AGILE X-Ray Detector The AGILE Anticoincidence System AGILE Observation Modes Pointing Mode Spinning Mode The AGILE Ground Segment AGILE Data Processing ADC Standard Analysis and Consolidated Archive The AGILE-LV3 Tool for Easy Online Scientific Analysis Fast Reaction to High-Energy Transients AGILE Scientific Results Flares from the Crab Nebula Flares From Cygnus X-3 The Origin of Cosmic Rays in Supernova Remnants Fast Flares from Active Galactic Nuclei High-Energy Emission from Gamma-Ray Bursts Search for Gravitational Wave Event Counterparts Search for High-Energy Neutrino Counterparts Terrestrial Gamma-Ray Flashes Highlighting the Mechanism of Fast Radio Bursts Solar Flares Conclusions References 67 Fermi Gamma-Ray Space Telescope Contents Introduction Scientific Instruments Gamma-Ray Burst Monitor Large Area Telescope Instrument Operations GBM Operations LAT Operations Fermi Observatory Fermi Operations Fermi as an Astrophysical Facility Science Highlights GBM Highlights Gamma-Ray Bursts Associated with Gravitational Waves Joint Observations of GRBs by GBM and LAT Magnetars Crab Variations Observed by GBM and LAT Accreting Pulsars and X-ray Binaries Solar Flares Terrestrial Gamma-Ray Flashes LAT Highlights Fermi Bubbles Novae Dark Matter Pulsars AGN Cosmic-Ray Sources Conclusion Cross-References References 68 The Fermi Large Area Telescope Contents Introduction A Space-Based MeV–GeV Gamma-Ray Observatory The Tracker (TKR) The Calorimeter (CAL) The Anticoincidence Detector (ACD) Data Acquisition and Event Analysis Operation Calibration Performance Conclusion Cross-References References 69 The ASTROGAM Concept Contents Introduction The ASTROGAM Instrument ASTROGAM\'s Capability to Answer Key Scientific Questions A Short History of the ASTROGAM Concept Conclusions References Part VII Ground-Based Gamma-Ray Observatories 70 Introduction to Ground-Based Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Contents Introduction Cosmic Rays at the Earth Cosmic Rays: An Observational Summary Cosmic-Ray Transport Picture Transition from Galactic and Extragalactic Source Dominance Astrophysical Source Classes That Can Contribute Significantly to the Cosmic Rays The Origin of Cosmic Rays Gamma-Ray Production Mechanisms Population of Gamma-Ray Sources Particle Accelerators as Astrophysical Probes Characterization of the Galactic and extragalactic media Testing Relativistic Effects Summary References 71 How to Detect Gamma Rays from Ground: An Introduction to the Detection Concepts Contents Introduction Electromagnetic Air Showers The Earth\'s Atmosphere Longitudinal and Lateral Development of Electromagnetic Showers Cherenkov Light Differences Between Electromagnetic and Cosmic-Ray Showers Air Shower Simulations Air Shower Particle Detectors Event Reconstruction with Air Shower Particle Detectors Cosmic-Ray Rejection with Air Shower Particle Detectors Sampling Cherenkov Arrays Event Reconstruction and Cosmic-Ray Rejection with Sampling Cherenkov Arrays Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescopes Event Reconstruction and Cosmic-Ray Rejection with IACTs Complementarity Between Ground-Based Techniques Other Detection Concepts Conclusion References 72 The Development of Ground-Based Gamma-Ray Astronomy: A Historical Overview of the Pioneering Experiments Contents Introduction The Very Beginning Developments in 1930s Contribution of Cherenkov Emission from EAS into LoNS Discovery of Cherenkov Emission in the Atmosphere First Generation Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescopes Chudakov\'s Telescopes in Crimea Other First Generation Telescopes A Short Summary on the First Generation Telescopes Image Shape of EAS Air Shower Photos Taken in Cherenkov Light Monte Carlo Simulations of EAS and the “Stereo” Observations The Second Generation Telescopes The 10 m Whipple Telescope GT-48 in Crimea High Energy Gamma Ray Astronomy (HEGRA) The Japanese 7-Telescope Array The CAT Telescope CANGAROO Wide FoV Telescopes TACTIC and SHALON The CLUE Telescope The Durham Mark 6 Telescope Solar Power Plants as Gamma-Ray Telescopes The Solar Power Plants, the Threshold Energy and the MAGIC Telescope The Third Generation Telescopes H.E.S.S. VERITAS MAGIC The Fourth Generation Instruments Cherenkov Telescope Array – The Major Instrument TAIGA LHAASO Conclusions References 73 Detecting Gamma Rays with High Resolution and Moderate Field of View: The Air Cherenkov Technique Contents Introduction Air Shower Properties and Imaging Telescope Optics Mechanical Structure Mirror Technology Telescope Control, Event Reconstruction, and Data Products Photosensors Camera Trigger and DAQ Camera Trigger Stereo Trigger DAQ Electronics Analysis Techniques Signal Extraction Image Cleaning Gamma–Hadron Separation Determination of Gamma-Ray Energy and Incident Direction Typical Performance and Scientific Plots Current Telescopes and Future Evolution of the Technique References 74 Detecting Gamma-Rays with Moderate Resolution and Large Field of View: Particle Detector Arrays and Water Cherenkov Technique Contents Introduction Ground-Based Detection Air Shower Physics Simplified Treatment Adding Complexity to the Air Shower Model Example Experiments HAWC LHAASO Detector Performance Sensitivity to a γ-Ray Point Source The Energy Threshold Relative Trigger Efficiency R The Angular Resolution Background Discrimination from the Ground Future Prospects Conclusions References 75 The High-Altitude Water Cherenkov Detector Array: HAWC Contents Introduction Science Goals of the HAWC Observatory Observatory Site and Design Observatory Site Water Cherenkov Detectors (WCDs) Water Electronics Methods of Data Reconstruction and Analysis Overview of Important Scientific Results Synergies with Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescopes Conclusion and Outlook References 76 Current Particle Detector Arrays in Gamma-Ray Astronomy Contents Introduction Progress of the Particle Detector Array in China Tibet ASγ ARGO-YBJ Identification of the First TeV Gamma-Ray Super-Bubble Long-Term Monitoring at VHE Band and Multiwave Band Study of AGN LHAASO KM2A WCDA Major Achievement of LHAASO in Gamma-Ray Astronomy Conclusion References 77 The Major Gamma-Ray Imaging Cherenkov Telescopes (MAGIC) Contents Introduction The MAGIC History The MAGIC Collaboration Envisioned Scientific Goals First Light and Start of MAGIC-I Operation First Scientific Results Going to Stereo The MAGIC Technology The Light Structure The Mirrors The Camera Receivers and the Trigger Systems The Readout The Data Center From Mono to Stereo MAGIC Upgrades The MAGIC Performance Sensitivity Angular and Energy Resolution Systematic Uncertainties Special Observation Conditions The MAGIC Scientific Achievements Pulsars Binary Systems Gamma-Ray Bursts Monitoring of Bright AGNs ToO Program Extragalactic Background Light Fundamental Physics The Future of MAGIC CTA North Being Built MAGIC Data Legacy Alternative and Complementary Uses of MAGIC Conclusion References 78 The Very Energetic Radiation Imaging Telescope Array System (VERITAS) Contents Introduction Telescopes Reflectors Cameras Electronics and Data Acquisition Diagnostic and Monitoring Systems Telescope Positions Performance Components for Ancillary Science The Scientific Program of VERITAS Extragalactic Source Studies The VERITAS Blazar Sample Jets of Radio Galaxies Understanding Gamma-Ray Emission in Blazars Variability of Gamma-Ray Flux in Blazars Blazars as Probes of Cosmology The Starburst Galaxy M82 Galactic Astrophysics Supernova Remnants Pulsar Wind Nebulae and the Search for PeVatrons The Cygnus Survey and the Galactic Diffuse Emission The Crab Pulsar Gamma-Ray Binaries Multimessenger Partnership Using VERITAS Data to Explore Fundamental Physics Legacy and Prospects for the Future References 79 H.E.S.S.: The High Energy Stereoscopic System Contents Introduction The H.E.S.S. Telescopes in Namibia H.E.S.S. Site Telescope Optical Systems Telescope Structures and Drive Systems Mirror Systems Mirror Alignment Point Spread Function and Pointing Accuracy Cameras CT1-4: The HESS1U Cameras CT5 Central Facilities Central Trigger System Data Acquisition System Internal and External Network Connection Power Connection Auxiliary Facilities ATOM and All-Sky Camera AERONET Data Analysis Introduction Data Transfer Data Calibration in H.E.S.S. Toward DL3: γ-Hadron Separation and IRFs Background Estimation High-Level Analysis Scientific Highlights Achieved with H.E.S.S. Galactic Science Extragalactic Science Dark or Exotic Matter Searches Conclusion Cross-References References 80 The Cherenkov Telescope Array Contents Introduction CTA Concept and History CTA Concept CTA History Telescope Arrays Simulation and Layout Optimisation Telescopes Large-Sized Telescope (LST) Medium-Sized Telescope (MST) Small-Sized Telescope (SST) Triggering Monitoring and Calibration Sites The Alpha Configuration CTA Observatory Architecture and Data Flow Observatory Organization and Access to the Observatory CTA Science Performance and Key Science Instrument Performance Key Science Projects Science Performance: Selected Topics Surveying the Galactic Plane Understanding Active Galactic Nuclei Measurement of the EBL Intensity Search for Dark Matter Annihilation Conclusions Cross-References References 81 Future Developments in Ground-Based Gamma-Ray Astronomy Contents Introduction Overview of Techniques Extensive Air Showers Particle Detector Arrays Air Cherenkov Technique TAIGA – Gamma-Ray and Cosmic-Ray Astrophysics in Siberia The Tunka Site Experimental Concept TAIGA-HiSCORE Station and Array Design Data Acquisition and Slow Control Electronics Data Reconstruction Monte Carlo Simulations and Array Performance TAIGA-IACT The IACT Technique and TAIGA TAIGA-IACT Design Event Reconstruction TAIGA-Muon Hybrid Imaging-Timing Concept TAIGA Sensitivity Outlook Southern Hemisphere EAS Array Proposals Southern Wide-Field Gamma-Ray Observatory, SWGO The Observatory Concept The Array Configuration Evaluation The Detector Design Options An Andean Large-Area Particle Detector for γ-Rays – the ALPACA Experiment ALPAQUITA The Cosmic Multiperspective Event Tracker (CoMET) Project ALTO Stations CLiC Stations RPC-Based Proposals The STACEX Concept Future Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Experiments The CTA Context ASTRI The ASTRI Mini-Array MACE Conclusions Cross-References References Part VIII Solar System Planets 82 Comets, Mars and Venus Contents Introduction Comets Charge Exchange X-Ray Observation of Comets Preparing a Comet Observation Data Analysis X–Ray Spectra X-Ray Images Alternatives to Charge Exchange Mars Mars and Comets: Similarities and Differences Scattered Solar X–Rays First Observation with Chandra Subsequent Observation with XMM-Newton Importance of Mars X-Ray Observations Venus Venus and Mars: Similarities and Differences Observing Venus in X-Rays Results Conclusions References 83 X-ray Emissions from the Jovian System Contents Introduction Jupiter\'s Equatorial Emissions Jupiter\'s X-Ray Aurorae Jupiter\'s Hard X-Ray Aurorae Dawn Storms and Injections in the UV and Hard X-Ray Aurorae Jupiter\'s Polar Soft X-Ray Aurorae Pulsed X-Ray Ion Auroral Flares/Pulses Swirl/Flickering Polar Soft X-Ray Aurora Jupiter\'s Dark Polar Region Direct Imaging of Jupiter\'s Surrounding Space Plasma X-Rays from the Io Plasma Torus X-Rays from the Radiation Belts X-Ray Observations of the Galilean Satellites: Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto Future Observations Forthcoming and Proposed In Situ X-Ray Instruments Conclusion and Summary References 84 The Earth, the Moon, Mercury, Saturn and Its Rings, and Asteroids Contents Introduction Earth\'s X-Ray Emissions The Moon Mercury Saturn Rings of Saturn Asteroids Conclusions Cross-References References 85 Earth\'s Exospheric X-ray Emissions Contents Introduction A Brief Description of Earth\'s Magnetosphere Exospheric Hydrogen Density Legacy from X-Ray Astronomy Realizing the Astronomical Observing Problem Caused by Exospheric SWCX Techniques to Observe Exospheric SWCX Initial Modelling of Exospheric SWCX Technical Issues for Observing Exospheric SWCX Characteristics of Exospheric SWCX Emission Time Variability of Exospheric SWCX Spectral Characteristics of Exospheric SWCX Spatial Distribution of Exospheric SWCX Missions Exploiting Geocoronal Charge Exchange X-Ray Emission Cross-References References 86 SMILE: A Novel Way to Explore Solar-Terrestrial Interactions Contents Introduction The Earth\'s Magnetosphere In Situ Measurements Versus Global View A Novel Method to Image the Magnetosphere The Novel Approach with SMILE SMILE Scientific Motivations The Character of Reconnection The Geomagnetic Substorm Cycle CME-Driven Geomagnetic Storms Modeling in Preparation for SMILE SMILE Impact and Conclusions References 87 X-ray Emissions from the Ice Giants and Kuiper Belt Contents Introduction to the Ice Giants and Kuiper Belt Dominant Sources of Planetary X-rays X-ray Observations of Uranus X-ray Observations of Neptune X-ray Observations of Pluto Conclusions and the Future of the Field References Part IX The Sun, Stars, and Exoplanets 88 The Solar X-ray Corona Contents Introduction Quiet Sun, Coronal Bright Points, and Coronal Holes Active Regions Solar Flares and Coronal Mass Ejections Surprising Flares: Rocket Experiments and Skylab The Power of Spectroscopy: The Solar Maximum Mission The Digital Era: From Yohkoh to Hinode and Onward Coronal Mass Ejections Conclusions Cross-References References 89 Stellar Coronae Contents Introduction: The Solar-Stellar Analogy and Its Limits Stellar Coronal Plasma The Solar Prototype Coronal X-ray Spectra Diagnostics from Low-Resolution X-Ray Spectra Coronal Structure Temperature Structure and Emission Measure Distribution Coronal Morphology and Spatial Structure Density Diagnostics Geometrical and Doppler Shift Diagnostics of Coronal Structure Chemical Abundances in Stellar Coronae Evolutionary Aspects The Main Sequence Coronal Activity and Angular Momentum Coronal Activity Through Time Open Problems on the X-Ray Activity-Rotation-Age Relation Evolved Stars The Dividing Line: The Haves and the Have Nots X-Rays from Supergiants and Cepheid Variables Stellar Coronae in Limiting Regimes A-Type Stars: Toward Coronal Darkness Very Low-Mass Stars and Brown Dwarfs The Puzzle of Magnetic Behavior over the Fully Convective Limit To the Brown Dwarf Limit and Beyond Close Binary Stars RS Canum Venaticorum Binaries BY Draconis and W UMa Binaries Algol-Type Binaries Multiwavelength Connections Variability Flares A Short History of Stellar X-Ray Flare Observations Elements of Flare Physics: Thermodynamical Evolution Elements of Flare Physics: Frequency Distribution of X-Ray Flare Energy Elements of Flare Physics: Coronal Mass Ejections Elements of Flare Physics: Correlated Emission in Different Wavebands X-Ray Magnetic Cycles Conclusion Cross-References References 90 X-ray Emission of Massive Stars and Their Winds Contents Introduction X-Ray Emission from Single Massive Stars OB Stars Evolved Massive Stars Magnetic Massive Stars Massive Binaries γ Cas Stars Accreting Compact Companion Scenarios Hot Subdwarf Companion Scenario Magnetic Star/Disk Interaction Conclusions and Future Prospects Cross-References References 91 Magnetically Confined Wind Shock Contents Introduction Historical Perspective Magnetic Confinement Alfv́en Radius Rotation and Kepler Radius MHD Simulations Rotation-Confinement Diagram and Stellar Spindown X-Ray Luminosity from Magnetically Confined Wind Shocks UV Wind Line Variation Observed by HST Hα Line Emission from Dynamical Magnetospheres Centrifugal Breakout and Hα Emission from Centrifugal Magnetospheres CBO Challenges to Rigid-Field Models Future Outlook Cross-References References 92 Pre-main Sequence: Accretion and Outflows Contents Introduction T Tauri Stars The Power of X-Rays for Studying T Tauri Stars Accretion The Accretion Stream and Its Footpoints X-Ray Signatures of the Accretion Shock Physics of Accretion in 1D The Shock Front Structure of the Post-Shock Region Why We Need to Go Beyond 1D Models The Multi-D Structure of the Accretion Shock Variability and Accretion Outbursts Toward a Coherent Picture of the Accretion Shock X-Rays from Protostellar Jets X-Ray Observations of Jets X-Rays from Jet Knots X-Rays from the Jet Base Origin of the X-Ray Emission at the Jet Base Comparison with Other Jet Tracers Toward a Coherent Model for X-Ray Emission from Protostellar Jets Conclusions and Outlook Cross-References References 93 Star-Forming Regions Contents Introduction The Early Einstein Discoveries, the Emergence of Intriguing Questions, and Some Initial Answers ROSAT and the Nearby Star-Forming Sites ASCA: Looking for X-Rays from Class I and Class 0 YSOs The Transformational Impact of Chandra and XMM-Newton Systematic Studies of the Star Cluster Formation Process Long-Look, Large-Area, and Multiwavelength Simultaneous Surveys NGC 1893: Exploring Star Formation in the Outer Galaxy DROXO and Follow-On: The Enigmatic Variability of YSO Fe 6.4keV Line XEST and the Origin of YSO Mass-LX and Accretion-LX Relations COUP: LX vs. Rotation and Age, Insights on the Dynamo, and the Origin of Saturation CSI-2264: Unveiling Circumstellar Disks with Simultaneous Multiwavelength Variability Studies X-Rays from Class 0 YSOs The YSO Flares: Nature and Effects on Circumstellar Disks Circumstellar Disk Evolution and High-Energy Radiation YSO X-Ray Emission Effects on Small and Large Scales A Glance into the Future References 94 Nearby Young Stars and Young Moving Groups Contents Introduction Young Stars and Stellar Groups Within 100pc Nearby Young Moving Groups Identifying NYMG Members: X-Rays, UV, and Gaia Well-Studied NYMGs and Their Members The Cha Association, age 5 Myr The TW Hya Association, age 8Myr The β Pic Moving Group, age 24Myr The Tuc-Hor and Columba Associations, age 40–50Myr The AB Dor Moving Group, age 120Myr High-Energy Stellar Astrophysics: Exploiting Nearby, Young Stars Early Evolution of Magnetic Activity X-Ray Emission from Young, Intermediate-Mass Stars Pre-MS Accretion and Coronae at High (X-Ray) Spectral Resolution X-Ray Signatures of Accretion: TW Hya as Archetype Accretion Signatures in X-Ray Spectra of Other NYMG Members Physical Conditions Within Pre-MS Coronae High-Energy Irradiation of Planet-Forming Environments Photoevaporation and Chemical Evolution of Protoplanetary Disks Young-Planet Atmospheres: X-Ray Irradiation Processes Future Prospects: Impacts of Forthcoming X-Ray Missions and Facilities The eROSITA All-sky Survey High-Resolution Spectroscopy: Athena, Lynx, Arcus, and XRISM Summary Cross-References References 95 Extrasolar Planets and Star-Planet Interaction Contents Introduction Extrasolar Planets X-Ray Emission X-Ray Absorption Atmospheric Evaporation Star-Planet Interaction Tidal Star-Planet Interaction Magnetic Star-Planet Interaction X-Ray Observations of Tidal and Magnetic SPI Conclusion References 96 The X-ray Emission from Planetary Nebulae Contents Introduction Sources of X-Ray Emission in PNe Early X-Ray Observations of PNe PNe in the Era of Chandra and XMM-Newton What Has Been Learned from the X-Ray Observations of PNe Diffuse X-Ray Emission PN Evolution Refining Models of PN Formation The Physics at the Interphase Between the PN and Its Hot Bubble The Connection Between PNe and WR Wind-Blown Bubbles Differential Extinction X-Ray Emission from Born-Again PNe Point Sources of X-Ray Emission Photospheric X-Ray Emission from CSPNe Binary CSPNe Shock-In Winds The Future of X-Ray Observations of PNe References Part X Supernovae, Supernova Remnants, and Diffuse Emission 97 Stellar Evolution, SN Explosion, and Nucleosynthesis Contents Introduction Massive Star Evolution and Core-Collapse Supernovae Core Evolution Toward the Iron-Core Formation Core-Collapse Supernova (CCSN) Explosion Mechanism Core-Collapse Supernova Progenitors White Dwarfs in a Binary and Thermonuclear Supernovae Thermonuclear Supernovae: Progenitors and Explosion Mechanisms Binary Evolution of a White Dwarf Toward Thermonuclear Runaway Explosive Nucleosynthesis Emissions from Supernovae Characteristic Behaviors Power Sources SN Progenitors and Explosions as Seen in Observations High-Energy Emissions from Supernovae Conclusion References 98 Radioactive Decay Contents Introduction: Basics of Radioactivity Discovery Characteristics Radioactivity in Astrophysics General Considerations Different Processes New Astronomy Astrophysical Studies Using Radioactivity Tracing Past Activity Tracing Flows of Nucleosynthesis Ejecta Diagnostics of Explosions Summary and Conclusions References 99 Supernova Remnants: Types and Evolution Contents Introduction Evolution of Supernova Remnants Free Expansion Phase Adiabatic Expansion Phase Snowplow Phase Dissipation Phase Types of Supernova Remnants Shell-Type SNRs Plerion-Type SNRs Mixed-Morphology SNRs Conclusions References 100 Thermal Processes in Supernova Remnants Contents Shock Heating Rankine–Hugoniot Equations Collisionless Processes Postshock Processes Temperature Equilibration Ionization Cooling and Recombination Thermal X-Ray Emission and Spectral Diagnostics Short Summary References 101 Nonthermal Processes and Particle Acceleration in Supernova Remnants Contents Introduction SNRs as the Origin of Galactic Cosmic Rays The Cosmic-Ray Spectrum The Cosmic-Ray Composition and Leptonic Versus Hadronic Cosmic Rays The Galactic Cosmic-Ray Energy Budget Radiation from Leptonic and Hadronic Cosmic Rays Synchrotron Radiation Inverse Compton Scattering Nonthermal Bremsstrahlung Pion Production and Decay The Mechanism of Diffusive Shock Acceleration Collisionless Shocks Diffusive Shock Acceleration Theory and Its Extensions Acceleration Timescales and Maximum Energies The Effects of Radiative Losses and Cosmic-Ray Escape on the Maximum Energy Nonlinear Cosmic-Ray Acceleration The Injection Problem X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Evidence for Cosmic-Ray Acceleration Radio and X-Ray Synchrotron GeV-TeV Gamma Rays Measurements of the Cosmic-Ray Acceleration Efficiency Evidence or Lack of Evidence for PeVatrons Evidence for Low-Energy Cosmic Rays Cosmic-Ray Escape from Acceleration Sites Polarimetry and Magnetic-Field Turbulence and Topology Concluding Remarks References 102 Pulsar Wind Nebulae Contents Introduction Physical Description of a PWN PWN Evolution Observational Signatures and Notable PWNe Radio Infrared, Optical, and Ultraviolet X-Ray Gamma-Ray Young PWN: The Crab Nebula ``Stage 2\'\': Vela X Pulsar Halos ``Middle-Aged\'\': Geminga Ultrahigh-Energy Gamma-Ray Emission Recent Progress and Open Questions PWNe as PeVatrons ``Non-pulsar\'\' Wind Nebulae Particle Transport (Diffusion and Advection) Conclusion References 103 Diffuse Hot Plasma in the Interstellar Medium and Galactic Outflows Contents The Hot Phase of the ISM Sources of the Hot ISM Stellar-Wind Bubbles and Bow Shocks Supernova Remnants HII Regions and Superbubbles X-Ray Spur in the LMC Galactic Center Sgr A X-Ray Reflection Nebulae Galactic Ridge Emission Hot Interstellar Medium Nonthermal X-Ray Filaments and the Galactic Center Magnetic Field The Galactic Outflow Signs of a Galactic Outflow The Chimneys and the Base of the Galactic Outflow The eROSITA Bubbles Summary References 104 Interstellar Absorption and Dust Scattering Contents Introduction The Cold ISM Interstellar Dust The Extinction Curve The Dust Size Distribution Attenuation of X-Rays by the Interstellar Medium Dust Scattering from the ISM The X-Ray Fine Structure Correcting X-ray Observations for ISM Attenuation Laboratory Measurements of Solid Particles Implementation to Astrophysical Models Interaction of X-rays with Dust Grains Scattering and Absorption of X-rays: The State of Art Future Outlook References Part XI Compact Objects 105 Low-Mass X-ray Binaries Contents Introduction The Nature of the Compact Primary in LMXBs Donors and Accretion Phenomenology in LMXBs Canonical Roche Lobe Overflow with Main Sequence or Giant Stars Ultracompact X-Ray Binaries Eclipsing LMXBs Wind-Fed Accretion in LMXBs: Symbiotic X-Ray Binaries Magnetically Channeled Accretion in LMXBs: X-Ray Pulsars Variability and Transient Outbursts in LMXBs Long-Term X-Ray Behavior: Transient and Persistent LMXBs Extended Outbursts: Quasi-persistent LMXBs Outburst Statistics of Transient LMXBs The Role of the Orbital Period in the Long-Term X-Ray Behavior Short-Term X-Ray Behavior and Subclasses of NS LMXBs Classification Based on X-Ray Luminosity: Two Extreme Ends Very-Faint X-Ray Binaries Accretion Around the Eddington Luminosity in LMXBs Distribution and Demographics of LMXBs in the Galaxy Galactic Center and Bulge Galactic Plane and Outer Parts Globular Clusters Orbital Period Distribution Conclusion Cross-References References 106 High-Mass X-ray Binaries Contents Introduction Accretion in HMXBs Disk-Fed Accretion Wind Accretion Interactions Between the Accretion Flow and the Magnetosphere Classes of High-Mass X-Ray Binaries Supergiant X-Ray Binaries Persistent ``Classical\'\' HMXBs Supergiant Fast X-Ray Transients Be X-Ray Binaries Wolf-Rayet X-Ray Binaries Ultraluminous X-Ray Sources Gamma-Ray Binaries Black Hole Versus Neutron Star X-Ray Binaries Mass Measurements of Compact Objects in HMXBs On the Ratio of NS to BH HMXBs Emission Properties NS HMXB X-Ray Spectra Cyclotron Resonance Scattering Features Spectral States of Be XBs Spectral States of BH Systems Variability Periodic Variability X-Ray Pulsations Orbital Periods and Variability Superorbital Modulations Aperiodic Variability Short-Timescale Variability Long-Timescale Variability HMXB Populations in the Milky Way and Magellanic Clouds HMXB Luminosity Function Spatial Distribution and Ages Comparing the Milky Way and Magellanic HMXB Populations Cross-References References 107 Accreting White Dwarfs Contents Introduction What Is a White Dwarf? Electron Degeneracy The Equation of State of Electron-Degenerate Matter The Chandrasekhar Mass White Dwarf Formation White Dwarf Characteristics Rotation Rates Magnetic Field Temperature and Cooling Composition Observed Masses and Radii Accreting White Dwarfs Roche Lobe Overflow and Accretion Outflows and Jets Binary Components and the Diversity in Accreting White Dwarfs Cataclysmic Variables Classical Novae Supersoft Sources Dwarf Novae and Novalikes U Gem Stars SU UMa Stars Z Cam stars ER UMa Stars Permanent Superhumpers Non-magnetic Novalikes AM CVn Binaries Other Non-magnetic CVs Symbiotic Stars Be Star-White Dwarf Systems Magnetic CVs Polars and Intermediate Polars Accreting White Dwarfs in the Broader Astrophysical Context The Origin and Evolution of Accreting White Dwarfs Observed Orbital Period Distribution The Period Spike The Period Gap Exceeding the Chandrasekhar Mass White Dwarfs in Globular Clusters Discovering Accreting White Dwarfs Accreting White Dwarfs Found in Optical Surveys Accreting White Dwarfs Found in the SDSS Survey Accreting White Dwarfs Found in the Gaia Survey Accreting White Dwarfs Found in Other Optical Surveys Accreting White Dwarfs Found in X-Ray Surveys Future Surveys That Will Detect Accreting White Dwarfs Conclusions References 108 Formation and Evolution of Accreting Compact Objects Contents Introduction The Accreting Compact Object Zoo Modes of Mass Transfer Stability of Mass Transfer Through Roche Lobe Filling Dynamical Timescale Mass Transfer Thermal Timescale Mass Transfer Nuclear or Orbital Angular Momentum Loss Timescale Mass Transfer Formation Channels Common-Envelope Evolution The Energy Budget of Common-Envelope Evolution Common-Envelope Evolution from Hydro-dynamical Simulations Dynamically Stable Non-conservative Mass Transfer Low-/Intermediate-Mass Stars High-Mass Stars Combination of Dynamically Stable Non-conservative Mass Transfer and Common-Envelope Evolution Evolution Through Two Episodes of Common-Envelope Evolution Dynamically Stable Non-conservative Mass Transfer Followed by Common-Envelope Evolution Common-Envelope Evolution Followed by Dynamically Stable Non-conservative Mass Transfer Evolution Through Two Episodes of Dynamically Stable Non-conservative Mass Transfer Further Considerations on the Formation of Ultra-Compact X-Ray Binaries Additional Channels Through Dynamical Interactions in High-Density Environments Secular Evolution Cataclysmic Variables and Low-Mass X-Ray Binaries Low-Mass Unevolved M-/K-Type Main-Sequence Star Donors Subgiant or A-/F-/G-Type Main-Sequence Star Donors Comparison with Observations AMCVns and Ultra-Compact X-Ray Binaries Helium White Dwarf or Helium Star Donors Comparison with Observations Symbiotic Stars and Symbiotic X-Ray Binaries Atmospheric Roche Lobe Overflow Gravitationally Focused Wind Accretion Supergiant and Wolf–Rayet High-Mass X-Ray Binaries Conclusion Cross-References References 109 Black Holes: Accretion Processes in X-ray Binaries Contents Introduction Physics of Accretion onto BHs Formation of Accretion Disk Viscous Process Fundamental Principles Accretion Disk Models Shakura–Sunyaev Disks Advective-Dominated Accretion Flows Slim Disks Disk-Corona and Jets Radiation Cooling Links to Observations in XRBs Spectral Components and Identifications Accretion Disk Corona Reflection Spectral States Timing Perspectives on Accretion Noise and Propagation QPOs Conclusion References 110 Black Holes: Timing and Spectral Properties and Evolution Contents Introduction Galactic Black Holes: An Observational View Iron Lines Absorption Lines and Winds Radio- and Near-Infrared Emission and Jets Quasi-periodic Oscillations Low-Frequency QPOs High-Frequency QPOs Lags and Reverberation Soft γ-Rays and Polarization Outliers in Hardness Intensity Diagram Evolution Modeling and Interpretation Thermal Disc Modeling Origin of Winds Hard State Accretion Geometry Corona Origin/Jet Connection Origin of Gamma-Ray Tail Origin of QPOs Future of Black Hole Research in X-ray and Gamma-Ray Domain Cross-References References 111 Isolated Neutron Stars Contents Introduction Rotation-Powered Pulsars Magnetars Magnetar History in a Nutshell Persistent Emission Transient Emission Low-Magnetic Field Magnetars Magnetar-Like Activity from High-B Rotation-Powered Pulsars Central Compact Objects Fun Facts About CCOs 1E161348–5055: A Hidden Magnetar X-Ray Dim Isolated Neutron Stars Overview of the Observational Properties Rotating Radio Transients Conclusion References 112 Low-Magnetic-Field Neutron Stars in X-ray Binaries Contents Introduction The Zoo of Low-Magnetic-Field Neutron Stars Transient and Persistent Sources Classical LMXBs: Z-Sources and Atolls Fast X-ray Variability X-ray Spectral Properties The Continuum Spectrum: An Historical Overview Soft and Hard Spectral States Soft Spectral States Hard Spectral States The Reflection Component Bursting Sources Observational Properties of Bursts Photospheric Radius Expansion Bursts Burst Oscillations Probing the Surrounding Accretion Environment High-Inclinations Sources Accreting Millisecond Pulsars Accretion Torques Spin Frequency Distribution X-ray Spectra Pulse Profiles X-ray Quiescence Binary Evolution Transitional Millisecond Pulsars Faint and Very Faint Sources Multiwavelength Observations of NS LMXBs Facts (and Peculiarities) of NS LMXBs Jets Conclusions and Future Perspectives References 113 Accreting Strongly Magnetized Neutron Stars: X-ray Pulsars Contents Introduction Magnetic Field: The Reason for the XRP Uniqueness Observational Appearance of X-ray Pulsars Coherent Pulsations: The Definitive Feature of XRPs How Bright Are They? Aperiodic Variability or Flickering XRPs Energy Spectrum Polarization Properties of XRPs Optical Companions in XRPs Physics and Geometry of Accretion in XRPs Mass Transfer in the Binary System Accretion Flow Interacting with the NS Magnetosphere Magnetospheric Boundary Influence of the Magnetospheric Rotation Spin-Ups and Spin-Downs of NS in XRPs Different Physical Conditions in Accretion Discs Around XRPs Stochastic Fluctuations of the Mass Accretion Rate Geometry and Physics of the Emitting Region at the NS Surface Spectra Formation Challenges and Complications Broadband Energy Spectra Cyclotron Lines: The Fingerprints of a Strong Magnetic Field Open Issues Key Points to Have in Mind Cross-References References 114 Fundamental Physics with Neutron Stars Contents Introduction Formation of Neutron Stars First Observation of a Neutron Star Theoretical Arguments for the Existence of Neutron Stars Rotating Neutron Stars Magnetic Fields of Neutron Stars Gamma Ray Blasts from the Past Many Observational Faces of Neutron Stars Laboratories of Gravitation Space-Time Deformations Rotating Stars Radiation from the Star\'s Surface Pulse Profile Modeling Gravitational Waves Interpretation of Gravitational Waveforms Laboratories of Nuclear Physics Dense Matter Inside Compact Objects Degeneracy Pressure Thermal-Like Emission from Isolated Neutron Stars Thermonuclear X-ray Bursts Laboratories of Electrodynamics Spindown Power of Magnetized Balls Charges in the Magnetosphere Force-Free and Magnetohydrodynamic Solutions Evolving Magnetic Topology Mysterious Pulsar Radio Emission Pulsar Wind Nebulae Laboratories of Plasma Physics Standard Quantum Electrodynamic Interactions Pair Cascades Vacuum Birefringence Superfluid and Superconducting Interiors Gliches and Quakes Giant Bursts and Fast Radio Bursts from Magnetars Extreme Particles: Cosmic Rays, Neutrinos, and More Summary Cross-References References 115 X-ray Emission Mechanisms in Accreting White Dwarfs Contents Introduction Novae X-Ray Light Curves of Novae X-Ray Spectra of Novae Higher Energies Dwarf Novae Combination Novae Nova-Like Variables Persistent Super-Soft Sources BeWD Systems Symbiotic Stars Oddballs Magnetic Cataclysmic Variables X-Ray Spectra of mCVs Cyclotron Cooling in Polars Reflection The Soft Component of mCVs Masses of White Dwarfs in mCVs X-Ray Light Curves of mCVs X-Ray Light Curves of Polars X-Ray Light Curves of Intermediate Polars AEAqr and the Propeller Systems AMCVn Systems HMCnc and V407Vul: Direct Impact Accretion Conclusions References Part XII Galaxies 116 Introduction to the Section on Galaxies Contents Introduction References 117 X-ray Binaries in External Galaxies Contents Introduction High- and Low-Mass X-Ray Binaries X-Ray Scaling Relations and Luminosity Functions Disentangling HMXB and LMXB Populations in External Galaxies X-Ray Scaling Relations Time Dependence of HMXB Population Metallicity and Age Effects Sub-galactic Scales X-Ray Luminosity Functions X-Ray Emission as a SFR Proxy for Normal Galaxies Expectations from SRG/eROSITA All-Sky Survey Spatial Distribution of X-Ray Binaries in Galaxies Primordial and Dynamically Formed LMXBs LMXB Formation Channels Clues from Luminosity Functions Clues from the Spatial Distributions Ultraluminous X-Ray Sources Association with Star Formation Main Conclusions from Optical Studies Inferences from the Shape of the HMXB Luminosity Function Possible Nature and Implications for Accretion Physics Population Synthesis Results Relevant Results from Binary Evolution Summary of Population Synthesis Models and Their Results How Frequent Are X-Ray Binaries? Connection to LIGO-Virgo Sources Cosmic Evolution of X-Ray Binaries and Their Contribution to CXB Contribution of X-Ray Binaries to Cosmic X-Ray Background X-Ray Investigations of Cosmologically Distant Galaxies Drivers of the Redshift Evolution of X-Ray Binary Populations Recent Constraints on X-Ray Evolution of Galaxies Contribution to (Pre)Heating of IGM Conclusion References 118 The Hot Interstellar Medium Contents Introduction The Hot ISM of Star-Forming Galaxies Shock Heating and Diffuse X-Ray Emission Theory and Observations of Superwinds Chemical and Physical Evolution of the Hot ISM Starbursts in Galaxy Mergers An Ideal Laboratory: NGC6240 Observational Properties of the Hot ISM in Early-Type Galaxies From Discovery with the Einstein Observatory to Chandra and XMM-Newton Global Properties of the Hot ISM: Scaling Laws The Mass of ETGs 1D Radial Profiles of the X-Ray Surface Brightness and Temperature Distributions Radial Distributions of Fe Abundance Entropy Profiles 2D Spatial Distributions of X-Ray Surface Brightness and Gas Temperature Origin and Evolution of the Hot ISM in Early-Type Galaxies Origin of the Hot ISM Relative Importance and Evolution of the Mass Sources Heating of the Mass Sources Injection Temperatures and Observed Temperatures Cooling and Evolution of the Hot ISM The Mass Deposition Problem AGN Heating The Various Forms and Effects of the SMBH Accretion Output Modeling of the Hot ISM: The Simplest Model The Complex Lifetime of Hot Gas in ETGs The Global Picture Two More Actors: Environment and AGN Feedback Future Prospects References 119 X-ray Halos Around Massive Galaxies: Data and Theory Contents Introducing X-Ray Halos Around Massive Galaxies Motivation Overview of Past X-Ray Observations Massive Elliptical Galaxies Massive Disk Galaxies Simulating X-Ray Halos Around Massive Spiral Galaxies Confronting the Observed and Simulated Properties of the CGM X-Ray Scaling Relations Metallicity of the CGM Missing Baryon Problem Searching for the Missing Baryons with X-Ray Emission Measurements Searching for the Missing Baryons with X-Ray Absorption Studies Sunyaev–Zel\'dovich Effect The Importance of AGN Feedback on the Observed Properties of the CGM Missing Feedback Problem Future Outlook References 120 The Interaction of the Active Nucleus with the Host Galaxy Interstellar Medium Contents Introduction and Chapter Outline Theoretical and Multiwavelength Observational Background Galaxy Evolution and Feedback Multiwavelength Imaging of Radio-Quiet AGN Interactions with Host Galaxies The “Unified Scheme” of AGNs Early X-Ray Observations of Extended AGN Emission Through Chandra The Spectral Components of CT AGN Emission Chandra Imaging: The Soft Component Prevalence of Extended X-Rays Chandra High-Resolution Imaging Techniques Broad-Band (0.3–2.5 keV) Soft X-Ray Morphology Narrow-Band X-Ray Emission Line Imaging Spectra: Photoionization and Shock Excitation Seyfert and LINER Emission Coexisting in AGNs Chandra Imaging: Discovery of Extended Hard Continuum and Fe Kα (Neutral) The Effect of Fast Shocks: The Fe XXV Kα Line Emission Cross-Cone Emission: Leaky Torus or Jet-Stimulated Outflows? X-Ray Irradiation of Molecular Clouds in the Central 100 Pc: Imaging the Torus and AGN Feedback Mapping the Past History of AGNS AGN Feedback on the Host Galaxy ISM Summary: Revised View of AGNs and Their Interaction with the Host Galaxy References 121 Probing the Circumgalactic Medium with X-ray Absorption Lines Contents Introduction Further Insights from Theory Semi-analytic Models Why Study the CGM in Absorption? Technical Advances Enabling Absorption Line Spectroscopy of the CGM The X-Ray Absorbing Gas in the Milky Way Temperature Measurements Evidence for Multiple Temperature Components Column Density Measurements Pathlength, Density, and Mass Measurements Evidence for Non-thermal Line Broadening All Sky Distribution of Ovii Absorbers Uncertainties in Going from Observed Parameters to Derived Physical Conditions What Do We Detect: The CGM or the ISM in the Galactic Disk? The MW CGM Contains Sub-virial, Virial, and Super-virial Temperature Gas with Non-solar Abundance Ratios Does the Milky Way CGM Account for Its Missing Baryons? The CGM of External Galaxies The Sightline to PKS0405–123 Open Questions Future Directions Conclusion References Part XIII Active Galactic Nuclei in X- and Gamma-rays 122 Active Galactic Nuclei and Their Demography Through Cosmic Time Contents Active Galactic Nuclei as Multiwavelength and Multi-messenger Emitters The AGN ``Zoo\'\' AGN as High-Energy and Multi-messenger Sources Circumnuclear Matter on Different Physical Scales Within the Sublimation Radius The Torus Beyond the Torus up to the Host Galaxy AGN Demography and Evolution in the X-Ray and γ-Ray Bands X-Ray Band γ-Ray Band References 123 The Super-Massive Black Hole Close Environment in Active Galactic Nuclei Contents Introduction The Compact Source of X-Rays Reprocessing of X-Ray Radiation in the Gaseous Environment Close to the SMBH Basics of X-Ray Photons Interaction with Matter X-Ray Reflection The Fluorescent Iron Line Complex X-Ray Partial Covering Absorption Reprocessing in the Wind Strong-Field Gravity Signatures in X-Rays The Soft X-Ray Excess Observational Signatures The Soft X-Ray Excess Modelling X-Ray and Optical/UV Variability Aperiodic Variability X-Ray Reverberation Mapping Quasi-Periodic Oscillations Quasi-Periodic Eruptions Optical/UV Variability Accretion Properties in AGN Populations: The Disc–Corona Coupling Future Prospects X-Ray Polarimetry X-Ray Microcalorimeters: XRISM and Athena References 124 Black Hole-Galaxy Co-evolution and the Role of Feedback Contents AGN Fueling Interacting Galaxies Isolated Galaxies AGN Feedback Warm Absorbers Ultra-fast Outflows Scaling Relations for X-ray Winds Winds on Galactic Scales Warm Ionized Galactic Winds Cold Neutral and Molecular Winds Extended X-ray Emission and Cavities: ISM Feedback Models Extragalactic Surveys and Statistical Populations of AGN AGN Selection Through X-ray Surveys and Characterization of Host Galaxies Connections Between BH Accretion and Star Formation Black Hole Fueling and Galaxy Morphologies and Mergers Clustering and Dark Matter Halos Obscured and Elusive AGN Prospects for the Future and New Facilities References 125 The Dawn of Black Holes Contents Introduction The Earliest Black Holes Light Seed Black Holes Medium-Weight Seed Black Holes Heavy Seed Black Holes Primordial Black Holes and Exotic Candidates From Seeds to SMBHs SMBH Assembly in a Cosmological Context Seeding Galaxies with the Earliest BHs Eddington-Limited Growth SMBH Growth Boosted by Heavy Seeds The Relative Role of Seed BH Populations Super-Eddington-Driven Growth The Role of BH Mergers The Role of Feedback Observational Results on High-Redshift QSOs X-Ray Observations of High-Redshift QSOs The X-Ray View of Accretion Physics in High-z QSOs Quasars as Cosmological Probes How to Build a Quasar Hubble Diagram: The Technique How to Build a Quasar Hubble Diagram: Required Measurements and Sample Selection Cosmological Constraints from the Quasar Hubble Diagram The Unexplored Black Hole Universe The Missing QSO Population Conclusions and Future Prospects References Part XIV Galaxy Clusters 126 X-ray Cluster Cosmology Contents Introduction: Role of X-Rays in Cluster Cosmology Role of Massive Halos in Cosmology The Homogeneous Model Linear Growth of Matter Perturbations The Smoothed Linear Density Field Departures From Linear Growth The Halo Mass Function and Abundance of Clusters Galaxy Cluster Abundances in X-Ray Surveys X-Ray Mass Estimate: Hydrostatic and Proxies The X-Ray Luminosity Function The X-Ray Temperature Function The Baryon Mass Function X-Ray Observable-Space Distribution: The logN-logS X-Ray Observable-Space Distribution: General Observables Recent Cluster Abundance Studies Clusters as Tracers of Large-Scale Structure Two-Point Clustering of Halos and the Bias Parameter Constraints from X-Ray Clusters Two-Point Clustering Analyses Sample Variance Considerations Variance in Cluster Number Counts Extensions of the Sample Variance Formalism Clusters as Standard Candles The Gas Fraction Tests Distance Measurements with Combined X-Ray and SZ Observations Recent Results on the Hubble Constant Measurements Sources of Systematic Uncertainties Distance Measurements from Spectra of X-Ray Resonant Lines Cluster Internal Mass Distributions Pink Elephants Extreme-Value Statistics Rareness of Events Extreme Pairwise Velocities Clusters as Gravitational Theory Probes Selection Function Conclusions and Forward Look Resources References 127 Scaling Relations of Clusters and Groups and Their Evolution Contents Introduction Theoretical Background The X-Ray Emission from Clusters of Galaxies Self-Similarity The Mgas–M Relation The TX–M Relation The LX–M Relation The YX–M Relation The LX–TX Relation The Entropy of the ICM Heating and Cooling the ICM Analysis Methods and Considerations Observational Biases Selection Effects and Selection Functions X-Ray vs Optically and SZ-Selected Samples Correlated Errors Linear Regression and Fitting Packages Multivariate Analysis X-Ray Telescope Calibration Emission-Weighted and Spectroscopic-Like Temperatures Observational Results and Deviations from Self-Similarity The Slopes of Scaling Relations The Evolution of Scaling Relations Scatter and Covariance Mass Proxies Interpretation of Scaling Relations Comparison with Simulations Summary and Future Outlook eROSITA ATHENA References 128 Thermodynamic Profiles of Galaxy Clusters and Groups Contents Introduction Cluster Scaling Properties Dark Matter Haloes Intracluster Msedium X-Ray Observations Introduction Measurement of Physical Quantities Density Temperature Pressure Combined X-Ray/SZE Studies Observations Density Temperature Entropy Pressure Scatter in Scaled Profiles Evolution Cosmological Simulations of Groups and Clusters Non-radiative Cluster Simulations Simulations with Radiative Cooling and Preheating Simulations with Stellar and AGN Feedback Future Outlook References 129 Cluster Outskirts and Their Connection to the Cosmic Web Contents Introduction Definition of Cluster Outskirts Observations Methods for Measuring Thermodynamic Properties Observed Thermodynamic Profiles in the Outskirts Biases Due to Gas Clumping and Non-thermal Pressure Support Cold Fronts in the Cluster Outskirts Merger Shocks in the Cluster Outskirts Metals in the Cluster Outskirts Connections to the Cosmic Web Theory and Simulations Self-Similarity in Cluster Outskirts Thermodynamical Profiles of ICM in Cluster Outskirts Non-thermal Gas Motions in Cluster Outskirts Gas Density Inhomogeneities or Gas Clumping in Cluster Outskirts Shocks and Electron-Ion Non-equilibration Future Simulations and Modeling Efforts Upcoming and Future X-Ray Measurements Cross-References References 130 Absorption Studies of the Most Diffuse Gas in the Large-Scale Structure Contents Introduction Theory History: A Hot Intergalactic Medium The Large Scale Structure and the Warm-Hot Intergalactic Medium The Circumgalactic Medium X-Ray Techniques Ionization Balance of the LSS Gas in the Local Universe The WHIM Absorption Observables Absorption Line Curves of Growth WHIM Gas Diagnostics WHIM Physical Conditions WHIM Kinematics WHIM Chemical Conditions Feasibility of LSS Gas Absorption Observations Observations Currently Available Instruments Intervening X-Ray Absorption Lines Sightline to H1821+642 Sightline to Mrk421 Sightline to PKS2155–304 Sightline to 3C273 Sightlines to H2356–309 and Mrk501 Sightline to 1ES1553+113 WHIM and the CGM WHIM and the Missing Baryons Future Dispersive Spectrometers Nondispersive Spectrometers Detectability and Study of LSS Absorbers with Future Missions References 131 AGN Feedback in Groups and Clusters of Galaxies Contents Introduction Observational Signatures of AGN Feedback Historical Perspective The Case of AGN Feedback in Groups and Clusters of Galaxies How Does AGN Feedback Work (From an Observational Perspective) Accretion Processes and Modes Energetics and Timescales Heating by Shocks, Mixing, Turbulence, and/or Sound Waves Radio Jets and Massive Molecular Outflows The Evolution of AGN Feedback in Groups and Clusters of Galaxies Models of AGN Feedback Feeding the AGN Energy Release by Supermassive Black Holes Heating Efficiency by Radiation Heating Efficiency by Mechanical Energy Variants of the Mechanical Feedback Models Buoyantly Rising Bubbles Winds, Outflows of Thermal Plasma, and Mixing Strong Shocks Sound Waves Heating by Cosmic Ray Streaming Broader Outlook Cooling of the Gas Simulating AGN Feedback in General: Basic Models and Important Parameters Modeling AGN Feedback in Cosmological Simulations Modeling AGN Feedback in Idealized Simulations Understanding AGN Feedback in Simulations Modeling SMBH Accretion in Simulations Conclusion References 132 Chemical Enrichment in Groups and Clusters Contents Introduction Abundances and Metallicity Stars and Supernovae as Sources of Metals Asymptotic Giant Branch Stars Core-Collapse Supernovae Type Ia Supernovae Measuring/Simulating the ICM Chemical Properties: Techniques and Current Limitations Deriving Abundances from X-Ray Spectroscopy Current Observing Limitations Simulations Numerical Uncertainties and Limitations How and When Did the ICM Become Chemically Enriched? Spatial Uniformity of the Metal Distribution Mechanisms for Metal Transport Galaxy Clusters and Groups: Similar or Different Enrichment? Chemical Composition of the ICM Metal Budget in Clusters Redshift Evolution of the Chemical Enrichment Understanding Stellar Physics from Metals in the ICM Future Prospects References 133 The Merger Dynamics of the X-ray-Emitting Plasma in Clusters of Galaxies Contents Introduction X-Ray Features Produced by Cluster Mergers Cold Fronts ``Merger-Remnant\'\' Cold Fronts ``Sloshing\'\' Cold Fronts Shock Fronts Ram-Pressure-Stripped Tails The Measurement of Merger-Driven Gas Motions The Impact of ICM Plasma Physics on Merger-Driven Features Magnetic Fields Thermal Conduction Viscosity Electron–Ion Equilibration at Cluster Shocks Merging Clusters and Cosmic Rays: Observable Signatures in the Radio and X-Ray Bands Conclusions Cross-References References 134 Plasma Physics of the Intracluster Medium Contents Introduction Plasma Physics of the Thermal ICM Scale Hierarchy Plasma Magnetization and Anisotropic Transport Adiabatic Invariance and Temperature Anisotropy Kinetic Micro-instabilities and Their Impact on Transport Example: Suppressed Viscosity in the Coma Cluster Anisotropic Viscosity and Turbulent Amplification of Cluster Magnetic Fields Observational Constraints on ICM/IGM Magnetic Fields Plasma Theory Basics for Seed-Field Generation: Biermann and Weibel Plasma Theory Basics for Turbulent Dynamo Enter Plasma Physics Energetic Particle Transport and Acceleration in the ICM Some CR Transport Basics in the ICM Context Evolution of the ICM CR Distributions Some Models for Dpp CR Acceleration in ICM Shocks: ``DSA\'\' Future Perspectives References Part XV Transient Events 135 Gamma-Ray Bursts Contents Introduction Observations Prompt Emission Afterglow and Associated Supernova/Kilonova Host Galaxy Theory Central Engine and Jet Energy Sources Jet Acceleration Jet Propagation Prompt Emission Internal Dissipation Shocked Material Synchrotron Emission High-Energy Photon and Neutrino Emission Multiwavelength Afterglows External Reverse Shock External Forward Shock Post-standard Afterglow Models Supernova and Kilonova Supernova Kilonova/Mergernova Statistics and Cosmological Applications Luminosity Function High-Redshift Universe Luminosity Correlations of GRBs Cosmological Constraints References 136 Accretion Disk Evolution in Tidal Disruption Events Contents Introduction Steady State of a Local Ring Region Dynamical Evolution Piecewise Steady-State One-Zone Model Results and Comparison with Observations Conclusion and Future Directions References 137 Fast Radio Bursts Contents Introduction General Properties and Propagation Effects Dispersion Scattering Effect Scintillation Plasma Lensing Absorption Faraday Rotation Global Statistical Properties and Population Study Energy, Pulse Width, and Waiting Time Distribution Host Galaxy Properties Luminosity Function and Redshift Evolution FRB Classification Periodicity Physical Mechanism of FRBs Radiation Mechanism Antenna Mechanism Synchrotron Maser Emission from Magnetized Shocks Source Models FRB Counterpart Applications in Cosmology DM Contribution of Host Galaxy and Source Environment Fluctuations in IGM Conclusion References Part XVI Miscellanea 138 Probing Black-Hole Accretion Through Time Variability Contents Introduction X-Ray Variability in BH XRBs Time Scales of Variability Aperiodic X-Ray Variability Quasi-periodic Oscillations Low-Frequency Quasi-periodic Oscillations High-Frequency Quasi-periodic Oscillations X-ray Variability as a Tracer of the Accretion State A Variable Disc or a Variable Hard X-Ray Source? X-Ray Cross-Spectral-Timing Studies of BH XRBs Coherence X-Ray Time Lags Hard X-Ray Lags of the Aperiodic Variability X-Ray Reverberation Lags Lags Associated with QPOs A Brief Comparison Between BH XRBs and AGN Variability Constraining the Variability Process A Word About Models of X-Ray Variability A Word About QPOs Theoretical Models Conclusion Cross-References References 139 Surveys of the Cosmic X-ray Background Contents Introduction The Cosmic X-Ray Background and Early Global Studies Imaging Surveys of the CXRB: A Very Brief Review The Currently Resolved CXRB Fraction Sources Detected in CXRB Surveys CXRB Source Counterparts, Redshifts, and Classifications Main Extragalactic Source Types Insights on the AGN Population from CXRB Surveys AGN Demographics AGN Physics AGN Ecology Some Future Prospects and Other Relevant Reviews Some Future Prospects for CXRB Surveys Other Relevant Reviews References 140 Tests of General Relativity Using Black Hole X-ray Data Contents Introduction Black Holes Black Holes in General Relativity Astrophysical Black Holes Stellar-Mass Black Holes Supermassive Black Holes Black Holes Beyond General Relativity Accretion Disks Infinitesimally Thin Disks Finitely Thin and Thick Disks Observational Tests Thermal Spectrum Reflection Spectrum Other Tests X-Ray Reverberation Mapping Quasiperiodic Oscillations X-Ray Polarization Conclusion Cross-References References 141 Tests of Lorentz Invariance Contents Introduction Vacuum Dispersion Modified Photon Dispersion Relation Present Constraints from Time-of-Flight Measurements Gamma-Ray Bursts Active Galactic Nuclei Pulsars Vacuum Birefringence General Formulae Present Constraints from Polarization Measurements Photon Decay and Photon Splitting Photon Decay Photon Splitting Present Constraints from Spectral Cutoff Comparison with Different Methods Summary and Outlook References 142 X- and Gamma-Ray Astrophysics in the Era of Multi-messenger Astronomy Contents Introduction X-ray and Gamma-Ray Multi-messenger Sources Gamma-Ray Bursts Joint GW and EM Observations of GRBs Joint Neutrino and EM Observations of GRBs Blazars Joint Neutrino and EM Observations of Blazars Other Multi-messenger Source Candidates Core-Collapse SNe: Long GRBs and Shock Breakouts Bursting Magnetars and Soft Gamma Repeaters Multi-messenger Observations High-Frequency Gravitational Wave Detectors Neutrino Detectors X-ray and Gamma-Ray Facilities Einstein Probe SVOM eXTP Athena THESEUS Conclusions Cross-References References Part XVII Spectral-Imaging Analysis 143 Modeling and Simulating X-ray Spectra Contents Introduction X-ray Spectra and Spectral Modelling Data Structure and Formats Data Reduction Pattern/Grade Selection Cuts Based on the Background Pile-up and Optical Loading Selecting Events of Interests Software for Spectral Analysis Spectral Analysis How to Fit and How to Test a Spectral Model Spectral Energy Resolution and Binning Background Treatment Testing Model Components Parameters Correlations and Confidence Levels Additional Technical Recommendations for Spectral Analysis Performance Estimates for Proposals and Surveys References 144 Statistical Aspects of X-ray Spectral Analysis Contents The Story of Detected X-ray Photon Counts Combining Independent Data Understanding Chi2 and CStat Detector Details, Binning, and Grouping Background Spectra Frequentist Data Analysis Fitting by Minimization Frequentist Error Analysis Model Checking Model Comparison Limitations So Far Bayesian Inference Terminology Parameter Estimation Choosing Priors Computation in Multiple Dimensions Markov Chain Monte Carlo Nested Sampling Using Posteriors Model Checking Model Comparison Parameter Distributions of a Sample Further Information Conclusion References 145 Analysis Methods for Gamma-Ray Astronomy Contents Introduction Fermi-LAT Data and Spectral Analysis Data Structure and Organization Raw Fermi-LAT Data Access to Analysis-Ready Data Structure of the Fermi-LAT Spacecraft and Event Files Structure and Content of Photon Files Structure and Content of Spacecraft Files Fermi-LAT Data Analysis Data Analysis Software Data Quality Cuts Imaging Analysis Aperture Photometry Analysis Likelihood Analysis Unbinned and Binned Likelihood Analysis Source Detection Concluding Remarks Analysis Methods for Ground-Based Gamma-Ray Instruments Data Levels and Formats Low-Level Data Processing Calibration Image Cleaning Hillas Parameters Event Reconstruction Event Reconstruction with Hillas Parameters Event Reconstruction with Image Templates Event Reconstruction with Deep Learning Techniques Gamma/Hadron Separation Event Selection with Hillas Parameters Event Selection with Other Approaches Background Modelling First Success: The On/Off Method Estimating the Background from the Observation Itself Background Model from Archival Observations Generation of Instrument Response Functions High-Level Data Analysis Aperture Photometry 3D Likelihood Analysis Open Software Tools for IACT Data Analysis Similarities and Differences for Ground-Level Particle Detector Arrays Multi-wavelength Spectral Modelling Conclusion Cross-References References Part XVIII Timing Analysis 146 Basics of Fourier Analysis for High-Energy Astronomy Contents Fourier 101 Fourier Series Continuous Fourier Transform Discrete Fourier Transform Windowing and Sampling Windowing Effects Sampling Effects: Aliasing Window Carpentry Observational Windows Fast Fourier Transform The Power Density Spectrum and Its Representation PDS Normalization PDS Representation PDS Decomposition Bartlett\'s Method and Data Gaps Auto- and Cross-Correlation Cross-Spectra, Phase Lag Spectra, and Coherence Bispectrum and Bicoherence Lomb-Scargle Technique for Non-uniform Sampling Time-Frequency Analysis Short-Time Fourier Transform Wavelets Other Techniques References 147 Time Domain Methods for X-ray and Gamma-ray Astronomy Contents Variability in High Energy Astronomy Methodological Foundations for High Energy Light Curves Detecting Variability in Light Curves Anderson-Darling Test Test for Overdispersion Other Nonparametric Tests Sequential Likelihood-Based Tests Treatment of Background Events Characterization of Variability Autocorrelation Function Structure Function Wavelet Analysis Multiple Change Point Model Integer Autoregressive Models Astrophysical Modeling Multidimensional Variability Detection Software Packages Final Remarks References 148 Fourier Methods Contents Introduction Fourier Basics Terminology and Notation The Periodogram The Welch/Bartlett Periodogram Models for Commonly Encountered Signals Coherent Signals Stochastic Processes Quasi-Periodic Signals Fast Transients Periodogram Statistics The Likelihood for Periodograms Simulating Stochastic Time Series Dynamical Periodograms Periodicity Detection Signal Detection in Constant Noise Upper Limits on the Pulsed Amplitude Methods Not Based on the FFT The Rayleigh Test and Z2n Searches The H-Test Periodicity Searches in Variable Light Curves: Red Noise Searching for QPOs with Model Comparison Techniques Spectral Timing The Cross Spectrum Coherence Time Lags Total rms Covariance Variability-Energy Spectra Common Pitfalls Detector Effects: Dead Time and Friends Non-stationarity Unevenly Sampled Data: The Lomb–Scargle Periodogram Conclusions References 149 X-ray Polarimetry-Timing Contents Introduction Theoretical Expectations Pulsations Propagating Accretion Rate Fluctuations X-ray Reverberation Mapping Quasi Periodic Oscillations Blazars Observational Techniques Direct Measurement Stokes Parameters Pulsations Phase-Folding of QPOs Cross-Spectrum Between Modulation Angle Bins Modulation Angle Dependent Cross-Spectra Null Hypothesis Tests for Polarization Variability Technical Challenges Conclusions References Part XIX Polarimetry 150 General History of X-ray Polarimetry in Astrophysics Contents Introduction The Very Early Stage Ariel-5 and OSO-8 The Stellar X-Ray Polarimeter The Quest for Photoelectric Polarimeter The First Gas Pixel Detectors The Time Projection Chamber Toward a Mission Not Only IXPE Conclusions References 151 Bayesian Analysis of the Data from PoGO+ Contents Introduction The PoGO+ Mission: Principles, Methods, and Results Operating Principle and Analysis Framework Compton Polarimetry Minimum Detectable Polarization Stokes Parameters Bayesian Analysis X-Ray Polarimetry in the Bayesian Framework The PoGO+ Payload and Flight Instrument Design Flight Systems Preflight Calibration Flight Performance and Observations Data Reduction and Analysis Data Products During Flight On-Ground Data Preprocessing Polarization Analysis Preliminary Analysis Posterior Density Distribution and Parameter Estimation Results The Crab Cygnus X-1 Conclusion Cross-References References 152 Gamma-Ray Polarimetry of Transient Sources with POLAR Contents Introduction Introduction to POLAR Detection Principle The POLAR Detector Polarization Sensitivity of POLAR The Importance of Calibration Measuring Zero Polarization On-Ground Calibration In-Orbit Validation χ2 Analysis Data Processing GRB Analysis Simulated Response Systematic Errors from Spectral and Localization χ2 Fitting Shortcomings of This Method Bayesian Time-Integrated Analysis Forward-Folding Polarization Data Background Modeling Adding Data from Other Instruments Time-Integrated Results Time-Resolved Analysis Energy-Resolved Analysis References 153 Analysis of the Data from Photoelectric Gas Polarimeters Contents Introduction: Photoelectric Polarimeters Reconstruction of Photoelectron Track A Simple Analysis with the Modulation Curve The Minimum Detectable Polarization Stokes Parameters Properties of Stokes Parameters Spectro-Polarimetry with Stokes Parameters and Forward-Folding Polarization and Its Statistical Uncertainty Conclusions References 154 Neural Network Analysis of X-ray Polarimeter Data Contents Introduction How This Chapter Is Organized Imaging X-Ray Polarimetry Track Reconstruction Emission Angle Reconstruction Absorption Point Reconstruction Energy Reconstruction Events Converting Outside of the Gas Volume Polarization Estimation Stokes Parameters Methods Minimum Detectable Polarization (MDP) Deep Neural Networks Machine Learning with Deep Neural Networks Training Validation and Model Selection Convolutional Neural Networks Multitask Learning Uncertainty Quantification Deep Ensembles Neural Networks for Track Reconstruction Dataset Geometric Bias Hexagonal to Square Conversion Deep Ensemble Setup Removing Tail Tracks Training and Ensemble Selection Performance Neural Networks for Polarization Estimation Modulation Factor Weighted Maximum Likelihood Estimator Deep Ensembles Performance Weights Comparison Conclusion and Future Directions References 155 Soft Gamma-Ray Polarimetry with COSI Using Maximum Likelihood Analysis Contents Introduction Compton Telescopes and Polarization Measurements Operation of Compton Telescopes Compton Polarimetry Designing a Compton Polarimeter The Compton Spectrometer and Imager Instrument Polarization Calibration 2016 Balloon Flight and GRB 160530A Maximum Likelihood Method Framework for Polarization Measurements for Next-Generation Compton Telescopes Transient Sources Persistent Sources Conclusions References 156 Stokes Parameter Analysis of XL-Calibur Data Contents Introduction XL-Calibur Stokes Parameters Application to XL-Calibur Background and Observation Strategy Spectropolarimetric Analysis by Forward Folding A z-Dependent Forward-Folding Method for XL-Calibur Conclusion Cross-References References Index
