Handbook of Tissue Engineering Scaffolds: Volume One

Cover
Handbook of Tissue Engineering Scaffolds: Volume One
Copyright
List of contributors
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgment
Part One: An introduction to tissue engineering scaffolds
1 - Introduction to tissue engineering scaffolds
	1.1 Introduction
		1.1.1 Scaffolding approaches in tissue engineering
		1.1.2 Fabrication techniques for tissue engineering application
	References
	Further reading
2 - The role of scaffolds in tissue engineering
	2.1 Introduction
		2.1.1 Tissue engineering and scaffolds
		2.1.2 Metal-based scaffolds
		2.1.3 Ceramic-based scaffolds
		2.1.4 Polymer-based scaffolds
		2.1.5 Composite-based scaffolds
	2.2 Cell–ECM interaction and RGD nanospacing
		2.2.1 RGD nanospacing in 2D substrates with different stiffness
		2.2.23 D substrates
	2.3 Mechanotransduction
	2.4 Surface topography–mediated stem cell fate
	2.5 Control of cell migration and cancer invasion
	2.6 Scaffold for gene delivery
	2.7 Scaffold for multimodal drug delivery
	2.8 Scaffolds for bone tumor destruction
	2.9 Scaffolds for cell separations
	2.10 Future direction and conclusions
	References
3 - Scaffolds mimicking the native structure of tissues
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Characterization of native tissues
		3.2.1 Common chemical components in ECM
		3.2.2 Specific characteristics in ECM
		3.2.3 Mechanical properties - hard versus soft tissues
		3.2.4 Tissue with stratified epithelium (skin, lung, cornea, conjunctiva)
		3.2.5 Zonal, layer-specific tissues
		3.2.6 Vascularized tissues
	3.3 Scaffold designs to mimic the native structure of tissues
		3.3.1 Scaffolds for soft tissue
		3.3.2 Tissue models with epithelium (coculture + multilayer scaffolds)
		3.3.3 Scaffolds with zonal, layered structure
		3.3.4 Scaffolds to promote vascularization
		3.3.5 Scaffolds from decellularized tissues
	3.4 Summary
	References
4 - Computational design of tissue engineering scaffolds
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Preprocessing: design of the scaffold
		4.2.1 Scaffold structural properties
		4.2.2 Mechanical properties
		4.2.3 Modeling scaffold degradability
		4.2.4 Mass transport
	4.3 The fabrication process
		4.3.1 Shape fidelity in function of the fabrication process
		4.3.2 Biocompatibility of the fabrication process conditions
		4.3.3 Biological functionality after the fabrication process
	4.4 Postprocessing: bioreactor culture
		4.4.1 Incorporating the neotissue domain
		4.4.2 Multiphysics models for scaffolds in bioreactors
	4.5 Discussion
		4.5.1 Multiparametric optimization
		4.5.2 Future prospects
	Acknowledgments
	References
5 - Research progress of scaffold materials
	5.1 Introduction
		5.1.1 Types of biomaterials
		5.1.2 Synthetic biomaterials
		5.1.3 Natural biomaterials
	5.2 Biomaterials for tissue engineering applications
		5.2.1 Biomaterials for hard tissue engineering
		5.2.2 Biomaterials for soft tissue engineering
	5.3 Research development of tissue engineering biomaterials
		5.3.1 First-generation biomaterials
		5.3.2 Second-generation biomaterials
		5.3.3 Third-generation biomaterials
		5.3.4 Fourth-generation biomaterials
	5.4 Recent techniques in tissue engineering fabrication
		5.4.1 Bioprinting: bioink materials for tissue engineering scaffolds
	5.5 State-of-the-art and future perspectives
	5.6 Conclusions
	List of abbreviations
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further reading
6 - Fabrication techniques of tissue engineering scaffolds
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Scaffold fabrication techniques
		6.2.1 Porous scaffolds
			6.2.1.1 Solvent casting and porogen leaching
			6.2.1.2 Phase separation
			6.2.1.3 Gas foaming
			6.2.1.4 Sintering
			6.2.1.5 Electrospinning
			6.2.1.6 Self-assembly
			6.2.1.7 Hybrid scaffolds
		6.2.2 Additive manufacturing
			6.2.2.1 Powder-bed three-dimensional printing
			6.2.2.2 Selective laser sintering
			6.2.2.3 Fused deposition modeling
			6.2.2.4 Stereolithography
		6.2.3 Hydrogels
		6.2.4 Tissue/organ decellularization
		6.2.5 Tissue and organ bioprinting
	6.3 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
7 - Scaffolds implanted: what is next?
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Host immune reaction against implanted scaffolds
		7.2.1 Surgical procedure induces initial inflammation
		7.2.2 Bacterial adhesion
		7.2.3 Protein fouling further calls for immune response
		7.2.4 Myriad of immune response following protein adsorption
	7.3 Wound healing versus scar formation
		7.3.1 Scar thickness and its effects
	7.4 Recent understandings on immune cells activity against implants
		7.4.1 Presence of Th17 helper T cells and recruitment of neutrophils
		7.4.2 Macrophages and their polarization
	7.5 Immunoengineering scaffolds
	7.6 Biointegration of scaffolds with the host body
	7.7 Biodegradable scaffolds
	7.8 Conclusion and future perspectives
	References
8 - Moving from clinical trials to clinical practice
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Clinical applications
		8.2.1 Decellularized organs
			8.2.1.1 Commercialization of organ decellularization
		8.2.2 Clinical applications of scaffolds
			8.2.2.1 Characteristics of scaffolds
			8.2.2.2 Bone
			8.2.2.3 Trachea
			8.2.2.4 Cartilage
			8.2.2.5 Nerve
			8.2.2.6 Skin
			8.2.2.7 Urethra
	8.3 Conclusion and future research
	References
9 - Tissue engineering scaffolds: future perspectives
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Scaffolding approaches for tissue engineering
		9.2.13 D scaffolds
		9.2.2 Hydrogel-based matrices
	9.3 Concluding remarks and future perspectives
	Acknowledgments
	References
Part Two: Musculoskeletal tissue engineering scaffolds
10 - Scaffold for bone tissue engineering
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Bone structure and properties
	10.3 Scaffolds for bone tissue engineering
		10.3.1 Biological requirements of bone scaffolds
		10.3.2 Structural features of bone scaffolds
		10.3.3 Biomaterial composition of bone scaffolds
			10.3.3.1 Bioactive ceramics and glasses in bone scaffolds
			10.3.3.2 Natural and synthetic polymers and protein templates in bone scaffolds
			10.3.3.3 Composites in bone scaffolds
			10.3.3.4 Metallic bone scaffolds
		10.3.4 Fabrication processes for bone scaffolds
			10.3.4.1 Conventional technologies for bone scaffold fabrication
			10.3.4.2 Additive manufacturing of bone tissue engineering scaffolds
	10.4 FDA-approved bone scaffolds used in humans
	10.5 Conclusion
	References
11 - Scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering
	11.1 Introduction
		11.1.1 Cartilage types and structure
			11.1.1.1 Hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage structural differences
			11.1.1.2 Zonal composition of articular cartilage
		11.1.2 Clinical techniques
			11.1.2.1 Microfracture
			11.1.2.2 Autologous chondrocyte implantation
			11.1.2.3 Matrix-assisted chondrocyte implantation
		11.1.3 What is a scaffold?
	11.2 Cartilage scaffolds
		11.2.1 Natural materials
			11.2.1.1 Collagen
			11.2.1.2 Fibrin
			11.2.1.3 Hyaluronan
			11.2.1.4 Chitosan
			11.2.1.5 Agarose and alginate
			11.2.1.6 Silk
			11.2.1.7 Native cartilage matrix
		11.2.2 Synthetic materials
			11.2.2.1 Polyglycolic acid
			11.2.2.2 Polylactic acid
			11.2.2.3 Polylactic-co-glycolic acid
			11.2.2.4 Others
		11.2.3 Composite scaffolds
			11.2.3.1 Chondroinductive approaches
				11.2.3.1.1 Growth factors
				11.2.3.1.2 Chondroitin sulfate
			11.2.3.2 Hybrid scaffolds
	11.3 Osteochondral approach
		11.3.1 Allografts
		11.3.2 OC scaffold configurations
			11.3.2.1 Single phase
			11.3.2.2 Multiphase
			11.3.2.3 Gradient
	11.4 Future perspectives
	11.5 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
12 - Scaffolds for skeletal muscle tissue engineering
	12.1 Scaffolds for skeletal muscle engineering
		12.1.1 Response of skeletal muscle to injury
	12.2 Synthetic scaffolds
		12.2.1 Nondegradable synthetic scaffolds
		12.2.2 Biodegradable polymeric materials
		12.2.3 Biologic scaffolds
		12.2.4 Closing remarks
	12.3 Cell types for skeletal muscle tissue engineering
	12.4 Conclusions and future directions
	References
13 - Scaffolds for tendon tissue engineering
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Biomaterial-­based therapies
		13.2.1 Electrospinning (ES)
		13.2.2 Imprinting
		13.2.3 Hydrogels
		13.2.4 Extruded microfibers
		13.2.5 Lyophilized materials
	13.3 Tissue graft–based therapies
		13.3.1 Tissue graft fabrication
		13.3.2 Tissue grafts from decellularized tendons
		13.3.3 Tissue grafts from other tissues
	13.4 Scaffold-­free tissue engineering by self-­assembly
	13.5 Conclusion and future perspectives
	List of abbreviations
	Acknowledgments
	References
14 - Scaffolds for ligament tissue engineering
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Anatomy, physiology, and function of ligament
		14.2.1 Fiber bundle anatomy
		14.2.2 Ligament and bone interface
		14.2.3 Mechanical properties of the ligament
	14.3 Conditions and injuries, diseases, and disorders of ligament tissue
	14.4 Ligament healing
	14.5 Scaffold design and fabrication techniques
	14.6 Biomaterials available for ligament tissue engineering
		14.6.1 Natural materials
		14.6.2 Synthetic polymers
	14.7 Properties of an ideal ligament tissue scaffold
	14.8 Current technologies and strategies used in ligament tissue engineering
		14.8.1 Biological grafts
		14.8.2 Nondegradable grafts
		14.8.3 Tissue-engineered biodegradable grafts
	14.9 Future research in ligament tissue engineering
	References
	Further reading
15 - Scaffolds for regeneration of meniscus lesions
	15.1 The knee meniscus: structure and function
	15.2 Meniscus lesions: available therapeutic options
	15.3 Tissue engineering for cartilage and meniscus regeneration
		15.3.1 Cells and growth factors
		15.3.2 Biopolymer 3D graft
		15.3.3 Hydrogel 3D scaffolds and mixed approach
	15.4 Conclusions
	References
Part Three: Craniomaxillofacial tissue engineering scaffolds
16 - Scaffolds for mandibular reconstruction
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Clinical need of mandibular scaffolds
	16.3 Elements of scaffold development
		16.3.1 Cells
		16.3.2 Growth factors
	16.4 Mandibular scaffold options
		16.4.1 Scaffolds for small mandibular defects
		16.4.2 Scaffolds for critical mandibular defects
	16.5 Future requirements in mandibular regeneration
	References
17 - Scaffolds for maxillary sinus augmentation
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Maxillary sinus augmentation procedure
		17.2.1 Overview of surgical techniques
		17.2.2 Lateral window approach
		17.2.3 Transalveolar approach
	17.3 Scaffolding materials for the maxillary sinus augmentation
		17.3.1 Bone grafts
		17.3.2 Rigid scaffold
		17.3.3 Space maintainers
		17.3.4 Biologic agents
			17.3.4.1 Bone morphogenetic proteins
			17.3.4.2 Recombinant human platelet–derived growth factor-BB
			17.3.4.3 Platelet-rich plasma and platelet-rich fibrin
			17.3.4.4 Enamel matrix derivate
			17.3.4.5 Growth differential factor 5
		17.3.5 Bioengineered scaffolds
	17.4 Future directions
	References
18 - Scaffolds for nasal reconstruction
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Anatomy
	18.3 Grafts
	18.4 Tissue engineering
	18.5 Homografts
	18.6 Natural polymers
	18.7 Synthetic scaffolds
	18.8 Conclusion
	References
19 - Scaffolds for the repair of orbital wall defects
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Transplant materials
		19.2.1 Autologous bone
		19.2.2 Cartilage autografts
		19.2.3 Allografts
		19.2.4 Xenografts and animal-derived materials
	19.3 Synthetic materials for the reconstruction of orbital wall defects
		19.3.1 Bioceramics
			19.3.1.1 Hydroxyapatite and other calcium phosphates
			19.3.1.2 Bioactive glasses
		19.3.2 Metals
			19.3.2.1 Titanium
			19.3.2.2 Cobalt alloys
		19.3.3 Polymers
	19.4 Composite materials for the repair of orbital wall defects
	19.5 Scaffolds for orbital floor reconstruction: challenges and open issues
	19.6 Concluding remarks and future perspectives
	References
20 - Scaffolds for cleft lip and cleft palate reconstruction
	20.1 Introduction on cleft lip and palate reconstruction
	20.2 Skin in cleft lip reconstruction
		20.2.1 Physiology of the skin/lips
		20.2.2 Current surgical treatments
		20.2.3 Emerging tissue engineering scaffold technologies
	20.3 Oral mucosa in cleft palate reconstruction
		20.3.1 Physiology of the oral mucosa
		20.3.2 Current surgical treatments
		20.3.3 Emerging tissue engineering scaffold technologies
	20.4 Muscle in cleft palate reconstruction
		20.4.1 Physiology of the muscle
		20.4.2 Current surgical treatments
		20.4.3 Emerging tissue engineering scaffold technologies
	20.5 Bone in cleft palate reconstruction
		20.5.1 Physiology of the palate
		20.5.2 Current surgical treatments
		20.5.3 Emerging tissue engineering scaffold technologies
	20.6 Conclusion
		20.6.1 Future directions and needs for treatment
	References
21 - Scaffolds for temporomandibular joint disc engineering
	21.1 Background
	21.2 The role of TMJ disc scaffolds
	21.3 Scaffolding materials for the TMJ disc
		21.3.1 Natural scaffolds
		21.3.2 Synthetic scaffolds
		21.3.3 Composite scaffolds
	21.4 Technologies for scaffolds fabrication
		21.4.1 Particulate leaching technologies
		21.4.2 Phase separation technologies
		21.4.3 Textile technologies
		21.4.4 Electrospinning technologies
		21.4.5 3D printing and 3D bioprinting techniques
	21.5 Biological modifications of scaffolds
	21.6 Clinical applications and future directions
	References
Part Four: Dental tissue engineering scaffolds
22 - Scaffolds for regeneration of the pulp–dentine complex
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 Pulp–dentine biology and response to current treatment therapies
	22.3 Role of tissue engineering in regenerative endodontics
	22.4 Scaffolds
		22.4.1 Definition, ideal requirements, and biomaterial selection
		22.4.2 Scaffolds derived from biological sources
		22.4.3 Scaffolds of synthetic polymers, bioceramics, and composites
		22.4.4 Cell-laden versus cell-free scaffolds
		22.4.5 Partial pulp regeneration and complete regeneration of pulp–dentine complex
		22.4.6 Advanced scaffolds for pulp–dentine regeneration
	22.5 Summary and future perspectives
	References
23 - Scaffolds for periodontal tissue engineering
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 Periodontal tissue engineering
	23.3 Scaffolds in periodontal tissue engineering
		23.3.1 Applied biomaterials used in scaffold fabrication for periodontal tissue regeneration
			23.3.1.1 Biodegradable natural polymers
			23.3.1.2 Biodegradable synthetic polymers
			23.3.1.3 Bioceramics
			23.3.1.4 Composite biomaterials
		23.3.2 Advances in scaffold preparation techniques
			23.3.2.1 3D-printed scaffolds
				Biphasic scaffolds
				Triphasic scaffolds
	23.4 Recommendations and future directions
	References
24 - Tissue-engineered alloplastic scaffolds for reconstruction of alveolar defects
	24.1 Introduction
	24.2 Additive manufacturing of synthetic biomaterials for alveolar bone regeneration
		24.2.1 Regenerative pharmaceuticals: adenosine receptor stimulation
			24.2.1.1 Personalized fabrication of scaffolds
	24.3 Integration of tissue engineering principles: translational evidence
	24.4 Pediatric alveolar cleft defect regeneration
	24.5 Conclusions and future directions
	Acknowledgments
		Competing financial interests
	References
25 - Scaffolds for gingival tissues
	25.1 Principles of periodontal treatment
	25.2 Guided gingival tissue regeneration
	25.3 Nonresorbable gingival membranes
	25.4 Resorbable membranes
	25.5 Growth factors and cytokines
	25.6 Three-dimensional gingival scaffolds
	25.7 Gene therapy strategies for gingival tissues
	25.8 Conclusion and future perspectives
	References
26 - Scaffolds that promote enamel remineralization
	26.1 Introduction
	26.2 Embryological development of teeth
	26.3 Enamel natural genesis
		26.3.1 Defining terms
			26.3.1.1 Scaffolds
			26.3.1.2 Starting cells
			26.3.1.3 Processing materials
		26.3.2 Enamel structure and ultrastructure
	26.4 Technics for enamel rebuilding
		26.4.1 Biomimetic methods
		26.4.2 Self-­assembling peptide methods
		26.4.3 Regeneration of enamel using hydroxyapatite as basement method
		26.4.4 Natural or semisynthetic scaffold with stem cell methodology
		26.4.5 Synthetic scaffolds
	26.5 Biological evaluation of enamel scaffold
	26.6 Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
27 - Scaffolds for dental cementum
	27.1 Introduction
	27.2 Cementum anatomy, function, and structure
	27.3 Cementum formation
	27.4 Common problems associated with cementum
	27.5 Common resolutions for issues with the cementum
	27.6 Cell selection
	27.7 Scaffold/structure synthesis
		27.7.1 Electrospinning
		27.7.2 Self-assembling
		27.7.3 Solvent-casting, particulate leaching
		27.7.4 Rapid prototyping/3D printing
		27.7.5 Supercritical fluid-gas processing
		27.7.6 Layered nanocomposites
		27.7.7 Thermally induced phase separation
		27.7.8 Freeze casting/drying
		27.7.9 Gas foaming
		27.7.10 Grafts
	27.8 Biomaterials for cementum scaffolds
		27.8.1 Nonrigid biomaterials
		27.8.2 Rigid biomaterials
		27.8.3 Other biomaterials
	27.9 Summary
	References
	Further reading
28 - Scaffolds for engineering tooth–ligament interfaces
	28.1 Introduction
	28.2 Scaffolds for periodontal regeneration
		28.2.1 Monophasic scaffolds
	28.3 Multiphasic scaffolds
		28.3.1 Biphasic
		28.3.2 Triphasic scaffolds
		28.3.3 Clinical translation and personalized scaffold
	28.4 Whole tooth reconstruction
	28.5 Conclusion
	References
Part Five: Cardiaovascular tissue engineering scaffolds
29 - Whole-heart scaffolds—how to build a heart
	29.1 The need for tissue-engineered hearts
	29.2 The native human heart: structure and function
	29.3 Essential components of an engineered heart
		29.3.1 Whole-heart scaffolds
			29.3.1.1 Decellularized ECM scaffolds
			29.3.1.2 Synthesized scaffolds
		29.3.2 Cells
		29.3.3 Vasculature
	29.4 Building a whole heart in the laboratory
		29.4.1 Methods for recellularization
		29.4.2 Delivering cells via 3D bioprinting
		29.4.3 Perfusion bioreactors
	29.5 Moving in vivo
	References
30 - Scaffolds for engineering heart valve
	30.1 Introduction
	30.2 The cardiac cycle
	30.3 Heart valves
		30.3.1 Aortic valve
		30.3.2 Pulmonary heart valve
		30.3.3 Mitral heart valve
		30.3.4 Tricuspid valve
	30.4 Heart valve dysfunction
		30.4.1 Aortic regurgitation
		30.4.2 Pulmonary atresia
	30.5 Current treatment
		30.5.1 Mechanical valves
		30.5.2 Bioprostethics
	30.6 Tissue engineering
	30.7 Biomaterials and scaffolds
	30.8 Fabrication methods
	30.9 Cell sources
	30.10 Summary and further directions
	References
31 - Scaffolds for blood vessel tissue engineering
	31.1 Introduction
	31.2 Native blood vessels
	31.3 Existing disorders and treatments associated with blood vessels
	31.4 Mechanical requirements
		31.4.1 Mechanical stretch and burst pressure
		31.4.2 Fatigue resistance
		31.4.3 Suture retention
	31.5 Biomaterial’s requirements
		31.5.1 Biodegradability
		31.5.2 Biocompatibility
		31.5.3 Biomechanical interactivity
	31.6 Scaffold fiber diameter and porosity
	31.7 Polymers
		31.7.1 Natural polymers
			31.7.1.1 Collagen
			31.7.1.2 Fibronectin
			31.7.1.3 Fibrin/fibrinogen
			31.7.1.4 Gelatin
			31.7.1.5 Chitosan
		31.7.2 Synthetic polymers
			31.7.2.1 Polylactide
			31.7.2.2 Polyglycolide
			31.7.2.3 Polylactide-co-glycolide
			31.7.2.4 Polycaprolactone
			31.7.2.5 Polyurethanes
		31.7.3 Natural versus synthetic polymers
	31.8 Methods of fabrication
		31.8.1 Solvent casting
		31.8.2 Freeze-drying
		31.8.3 Self-assembly
		31.8.4 Electrospinning
	31.9 Summary
	References
	Further reading
32 - Scaffolds for tissue engineering of functional cardiac muscle
	32.1 Introduction
	32.2 Materials for cardiac tissue engineering
	32.3 Scaffolds for improving cell adhesion
	32.4 Scaffolds with improved mechanical properties
	32.5 Imitating the natural cardiac microenvironment
		32.5.1 Controlling the structural and mechanical properties of the scaffold
		32.5.2 Controlling the biochemical microenvironment
		32.5.3 Covalently linked growth factors
		32.5.4 Sustained growth factor release
		32.5.5 On-demand growth factor release
	32.6 Improving the electrical conductivity of scaffolds
		32.6.1 Conductive polymers
		32.6.2 Noble metals
		32.6.3 Carbon nanoparticles
	32.7 Online control and monitoring of tissue function
	32.8 Outlook
	References
33 - Bioengineered cardiac patch scaffolds
	33.1 Introduction
	33.2 Cardiovascular anatomy and physiology
	33.3 Organogenesis of myocardium
	33.4 Common problems and treatment options associated with myocardium
		33.4.1 Coronary heart disease
		33.4.2 Heart arrhythmia
	33.5 Cell selection
		33.5.1 Progenitor cells
		33.5.2 Pluripotent stem cell
		33.5.3 Mesenchymal stem cell
	33.6 How to fabricate cardiac patch scaffolds
	33.7 Biomaterials for myocardium scaffolds
		33.7.1 Natural polymers
			33.7.1.1 Collagen
			33.7.1.2 Hyaluronic acid
			33.7.1.3 Alginate
		33.7.2 Synthetic polymers
			33.7.2.1 Polyurethanes (PU)
			33.7.2.2 Polycaprolactone (PCL)
			33.7.2.3 Polyglycerol sebacate (PGS)
	33.8 Summary
	References
	Further reading
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Z
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