Handbook Of Space Security: Policies, Applications And Programs

Introduction......Page 5
Advisory Board......Page 8
Contents......Page 11
About the Editor-in-Chief......Page 17
About the Section Editors......Page 19
About the Managing Editor......Page 22
Contributors......Page 23
Part I: International Space Security Setting......Page 29
Foundational Themes......Page 30
International Space Security Focus Areas......Page 32
Conclusions......Page 34
2 Definition and Status of Space Security......Page 35
Introduction......Page 36
Definition of Space Security......Page 37
Security Definition......Page 38
Space Security Evolution......Page 39
Space Security Definition......Page 41
Africa......Page 42
Asia-Pacific......Page 44
Europe......Page 47
The Middle East......Page 49
Latin America......Page 51
North America......Page 52
Russia......Page 54
Key Priorities......Page 55
Concluding Remarks: The Way Forward for Space Security......Page 56
References......Page 57
3 Challenges to International Space Governance......Page 60
Background......Page 61
Increasing Competition in Space......Page 62
Increasing Reliance on Space Assets......Page 63
Dual-use of Space Assets......Page 64
The USA, Russia, and China in Space......Page 66
Proliferation of ASAT Weapons......Page 67
Stalemate on Arms Control Treaty Negotiations......Page 68
Conclusion......Page 71
References......Page 72
4 Spacepower Theory and Organizational Structures......Page 74
Introduction......Page 75
Noteworthy Efforts to Develop Spacepower Theory......Page 76
Spacepower Theory and Current US Space Policy......Page 81
Spacepower Theory, Hard Power, and the Quest for Sustainable Security......Page 84
Spacepower Theory, Harvesting Energy, and Creating Wealth in and from Space......Page 90
Spacepower Theory, Environmental Sustainability, and Survival......Page 94
References......Page 96
5 The Laws of War in Outer Space......Page 98
Introduction......Page 99
General Principles of Space Law......Page 100
Principles Regulating the ``Military´´ Uses of Outer Space......Page 105
The Laws of War: General Principles......Page 107
Distinction......Page 108
Proportionality......Page 109
The Relevance of the Laws of War to Outer Space......Page 110
Regulating the Threat of Space Warfare: Some Recent Initiatives......Page 112
Conclusion: Perspectives on the Way Forward......Page 114
References......Page 116
Further Reading......Page 118
6 Arms Control and Space Security......Page 119
Outer Space Treaty......Page 120
Moon Agreement......Page 122
Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty......Page 123
Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space......Page 124
No First Placement of Weapons in Outer Space......Page 125
Draft Treaty on Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space and of the Threat or Use of Force Against Outer Space Ob.........Page 126
International Code of Conduct for Outer Space......Page 130
Conclusions......Page 131
References......Page 133
7 Role of Space in Deterrence......Page 135
Introduction......Page 136
Space Deterrence......Page 137
Deterrence by Punishment......Page 138
Deterrence by Denial......Page 140
Primacy of the Adversary´s Decision-Making......Page 143
Credibility and Political Will Are Required......Page 144
Effective Communication Is Required......Page 145
Prospects for Strategic Misperception......Page 146
Space Deterrence Has a Terrestrial Aspect......Page 148
References......Page 149
8 Resilience of Space Systems: Principles and Practice......Page 151
Introduction......Page 152
Resilience for Deterrence in an Emerging Threat Environment: US Perspective......Page 153
Resilience for Critical Infrastructure Protection and Non-dependence: European Perspective......Page 155
Resilience as Key Quality of Functional Architecture......Page 156
Functional Elements of Resilient Architecture......Page 157
Trading Off Resilience and Capability in Architecture......Page 158
Resilient Operations and Organizations: The High Reliability and Resilience Engineering Perspective......Page 159
Resilience Through Sensemaking......Page 160
Practical Measures......Page 162
Disciplines Contributing to Resilience......Page 163
Resilience Through Transparency Measures and Partnerships......Page 164
Conclusion......Page 165
References......Page 166
9 Space Security Cooperation: Changing Dynamics......Page 168
The Case for Cooperative Approaches to Space Security......Page 169
Moderating Strategic Rivalry: Technical and Utilitarian Modes of Cooperation......Page 171
From Practical to Symbolic: Cooperation in Space Exploration......Page 172
Expanding Access to Space: Cooperation and Capacity-Building......Page 174
Cooperation for Safety and Sustainability......Page 176
New Patterns of Cooperation: Space Security Versus National Security......Page 178
New Issues: The Moon and Space Resources......Page 181
Conclusion: The Future of Space Security Cooperation......Page 182
References......Page 183
10 Strategic Competition for Space Partnerships and Markets......Page 186
Introduction......Page 187
Global Chinese and Russian Economic and Financial Space Activities......Page 188
Latin America......Page 192
Europe......Page 194
The Arctic......Page 196
Antarctica......Page 197
South and Southeast Asia......Page 198
Western, Central, and Eastern Asia......Page 199
Top Space Sector Capture Trends......Page 200
Key Findings......Page 201
References......Page 203
11 Space Export Control Law and Regulations......Page 207
Terminology......Page 208
International Legal Regimes......Page 211
The Melee of International Legal Instruments on Export Control......Page 212
The Specificities of the Outer Space Regime......Page 214
The Export Control Regime of the United States......Page 216
Dual-Use Goods: The Export Administration Regulations (EAR)......Page 217
Military Goods: The International Traffic in Arms Regulations......Page 220
Export Regulations of the European Union......Page 222
Dual-Use Items......Page 224
The Export Control Regulations of the European Space Agency......Page 225
Conclusions......Page 227
References......Page 228
12 Space Systems and Space Sovereignty as a Security Issue......Page 233
Notion of Sovereignty and Jurisdiction......Page 234
Why Does Space Security Matter?......Page 236
State Sovereignty and Homeland Security......Page 237
Military Activity in Space......Page 240
Peaceful Use in the Defense Domain......Page 241
Space Systems and Security in Space......Page 242
Vertical Territorial Sovereignty......Page 243
Space Systems and Economic Sovereignty......Page 245
Conclusion......Page 246
References......Page 247
13 Critical Space Infrastructures......Page 249
Critical Infrastructure Protection......Page 250
Critical Space Infrastructures......Page 253
Distinguishing Characteristics of SI and CSI......Page 255
Critical Space Infrastructure Protection......Page 256
Results from Framework Application......Page 258
Principles of Resilience......Page 259
Complex System Governance......Page 262
References......Page 264
14 Space and Cyber Threats......Page 267
A Security-Flavored Space......Page 268
Hacking in Space: Astro-Hackers?......Page 269
Motivations of Attackers......Page 272
Threats and Countermeasures......Page 273
End-to-End Cybersecurity......Page 276
Telemetry......Page 277
Payload Data......Page 278
ESA´s Own Approach to Mission Security......Page 279
Mission Categories and Security Profiles......Page 281
References......Page 284
15 Space Safety......Page 286
Introduction......Page 287
The Many Facets of Space Safety......Page 289
Acceptable Safety Level......Page 290
Safety Standards and Compliance Verification......Page 291
Launch Site Ground Safety Risk......Page 292
Launch Flight Safety Risk......Page 293
Air-Launch Safety......Page 295
Orbital Debris......Page 297
Collision Risk with Orbital Debris......Page 298
Controlling Orbital Debris Risk......Page 300
Orbital Debris Remediation: Active Debris Removal......Page 301
Reentry Safety Risk......Page 303
Environmental Risk......Page 304
Risk for Aviation......Page 306
Existing Regulations and Standards......Page 307
System Safety......Page 308
Commercial Suborbital Regulatory Safety Framework: A Case Study......Page 309
Self-Regulations: Safety as Business Case......Page 311
Prescriptive Requirements Versus Safety Case......Page 312
Human Rating: A Historical Perspective......Page 313
Space Safe and Rescue: Past, Present, and Future......Page 315
Crashworthiness......Page 316
Orbital Rescue......Page 317
References......Page 318
16 Evolution of Space Traffic and Space Traffic Management......Page 320
Protected Regions......Page 321
GEO Protected Region......Page 323
LEO Protected Region......Page 324
Space Debris......Page 325
Space Situational Awareness Data......Page 327
Best Practices and Standards......Page 328
Changes Coming......Page 329
Large LEO Constellations......Page 330
Environmental Effects on Satellite Lifetime......Page 333
Reentry Disposal of Satellites from Large Constellations......Page 334
Effect of Large Constellations on SSA Service Requirements......Page 335
Conclusions......Page 336
References......Page 338
17 Space Sustainability......Page 339
Space Security......Page 340
Space Sustainability......Page 341
Space in the UN System......Page 342
The International Legal Framework for Space Activities......Page 343
Introduction of the Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities on the Agenda of COPUOS......Page 345
COPUOS Working Group on the Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities......Page 346
Consideration of Topics......Page 347
Contributions by Non-state Actors......Page 349
Negotiation of the LTS Guidelines......Page 350
The Guidelines......Page 351
Implementation and Updating of the Guidelines......Page 353
Conference on Disarmament......Page 354
UN Group of Governmental Experts on Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures (TCBMs) in Outer Space Activities......Page 355
The EU Proposal for an International Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities......Page 356
Group of Governmental Experts on Further Practical Measures for the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space......Page 357
Concluding Remarks......Page 358
References......Page 359
18 Security Issues with Respect to Celestial Bodies......Page 361
Introduction......Page 362
Use ``Exclusively for Peaceful Purposes´´......Page 364
Threats Arising from the Weaponization of Outer Space......Page 365
Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space......Page 366
Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures in Outer Space Activities (TCBMs)......Page 367
Threats Associated with the Evolution of Space Activities on Celestial Bodies: The Space Resources Exploitation Issue......Page 368
Extraction and Appropriation of Space Resources: Security Issues......Page 369
National Approaches to Space Resource Utilization......Page 370
The Resources´ Issue Inside the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS)......Page 372
The Hague International Space Resources Governance Working Group......Page 373
Conclusion......Page 374
References......Page 375
Part II: Space Security Policies and Strategies of States......Page 377
Introduction......Page 378
Space Security Policies and Strategies of States......Page 379
Conclusion......Page 383
References......Page 384
20 War, Policy, and Spacepower: US Space Security Priorities......Page 385
Principle and Practice in US Space Policy......Page 386
Current US Space Policy......Page 398
Conclusion......Page 401
References......Page 402
21 Russia´s Space Security Policy......Page 403
Introduction......Page 404
Context......Page 405
Russia´s Perceptions of Space: Threats and Opportunities......Page 406
1990s: A Period of Retrenchment, Decline, and Dependency......Page 408
2000-2008: Russia´s Securitization and Militarization of Space......Page 409
2008-2013: Halting Modernization and Growing Ambitions Following the Russia-Georgia Conflict......Page 410
2014 and Beyond: Moving to the Offensive?......Page 411
Russia´s Space Diplomacy......Page 413
Conclusion......Page 415
References......Page 416
Introduction......Page 418
The Western European Union Era (1955-2001)......Page 420
The WEU and Space (1979-1999)......Page 422
The Development of a WEU Space Security Program......Page 423
At the Ministerial Level (Foreign and Defense Ministers)......Page 424
WEU´s Ambition: An Independent EO System for Defense......Page 426
Proposal for a WEU´s Earth Observation Space Policy......Page 428
Drafting a WEU´s Space Policy......Page 431
Conclusion......Page 432
References......Page 434
23 Strategic Overview of European Space and Security Governance......Page 437
Introduction......Page 438
National Level......Page 439
France......Page 441
Germany......Page 443
Spain......Page 444
Italy......Page 445
United Kingdom......Page 446
Multilateral Level......Page 447
Archetype Model for National Space and Security Governance......Page 458
Concluding Remarks......Page 461
References......Page 462
24 European Space Security Policy: A Cooperation Challenge for Europe......Page 464
Introduction......Page 465
Socioeconomic Rationale and Service-Oriented Policy......Page 467
European Autonomy and Weight on the International Scene......Page 468
Space Security in Europe: A Multilayered Framework......Page 471
Accommodating Different Concerns and Interests: Achievements and Limits......Page 474
Space Traffic Management: A Coordination and Leadership Challenge......Page 476
Conclusions......Page 478
References......Page 479
25 Space and Security Policy in Selected European Countries......Page 481
Introduction......Page 482
National Space and Security/Defense Strategies......Page 483
Space and Security Elements in Strategic Documents......Page 487
Space and Security Elements in Strategic Documents......Page 489
Space and Security Status......Page 490
Space and Security Elements in Strategic Documents......Page 491
Space and Security Elements in Strategic Documents......Page 492
Space and Security Elements in Strategic Documents......Page 493
Priorities and Trends in National Space and Security/Defense Strategies......Page 495
References......Page 496
26 Poland and Space Security......Page 499
The Polish Space Agency (POLSA)......Page 500
Polish Security and Defense Strategy......Page 501
Polish Space Law and Space Strategy......Page 503
National Programs......Page 504
Bilateral Cooperation......Page 506
European Union SST Consortium and Role of Poland......Page 507
ESA and Poland......Page 510
References......Page 511
27 Space Security in the Asia-Pacific......Page 513
Emerging Space Security Dynamics in Asia......Page 514
Indicators of Conflict......Page 516
Drivers of Space Conflict......Page 521
What Can Be Done?......Page 523
References......Page 525
28 Chinese Space and Security Policy: An Overview......Page 528
Introduction......Page 529
Peaceful Uses and Exploration of Outer Space......Page 530
Civil-Military Integration Policy in Space......Page 531
Space Debris Mitigation Measures in China......Page 533
Radio Frequency Management Regime......Page 534
Governance of Space: Space Policy-making in China......Page 536
Conclusions......Page 537
References......Page 538
29 Chinese Concepts of Space Security: Under the New Circumstances......Page 540
Space and Local Wars Under Modern, High-Technology Conditions......Page 541
Space and Informationized Local Wars......Page 543
Chinese Space Capabilities: A Brief Review......Page 544
Chinese Concepts of Military Space Operations......Page 546
Space Dominance and Information Dominance......Page 549
Mission Areas Associated with Space Operations......Page 550
Space Deterrence (kongjian weishe; )......Page 551
Space Strike Operations (kongjian tuji zuozhan; )......Page 553
Defensive Space Operations (kongjian fangyu zuozhan; )......Page 555
Space Information Support Operations (kongjian xinxi zhiyuan zuozhan; )......Page 556
Space and Information Dominance ``Under the New Circumstances´´......Page 557
Creation of the PLA Strategic Support Force (PLASSF)......Page 559
Civil-Military Integration of Space Industrial Capabilities......Page 560
Conclusions......Page 562
References......Page 564
30 Historical Evolution of Japanese Space Security Policy......Page 567
The Diet´s 1969 Resolution on ``Exclusively Peaceful Purposes´´......Page 568
The End of the Cold War Paradigm......Page 569
The Information-Gathering Satellite Program: Treading a Narrow Path Through a Legal Jungle......Page 570
Kawamura´s Initiative to Modify the 1969 Resolution......Page 571
Legalizing the Strategic Objectives of Space Policy......Page 572
Regional and Global Security......Page 574
Changes of the Role of the Ministry of Defense......Page 575
JAXA´s View on Space Security......Page 577
Japanese Reaction to the Code of Conduct......Page 578
Conclusion......Page 580
References......Page 581
31 India in Space: A Strategic Overview......Page 582
India´s Space Architecture......Page 583
Space and National Power......Page 588
Space for National Security......Page 590
Military Specific Space Systems......Page 592
India´s ASAT Test (Lele 2019)......Page 594
Conclusion......Page 597
References......Page 598
32 Israel´s Approach Towards Space Security and Sustainability......Page 599
Introduction......Page 600
An Overview of Israel´s Space Activities......Page 601
Israel´s Perspectives on Space Security and Sustainability......Page 606
References......Page 608
33 Policies and Programs of Iran´s Space Activities......Page 610
Introduction......Page 611
Vision Plan......Page 613
The Comprehensive Scientific Map of Iran......Page 615
The Comprehensive Document of Aerospace Development......Page 616
Air and Space Strategy......Page 617
Particular Principles in Space Activities......Page 618
The Five-Year Iranian Economic, Social and Cultural Development Plans......Page 619
The Sixth Development Plan Act......Page 620
Supervisory and Regulatory Structure for Implementing Space High-Level Policy Documents......Page 621
Challenges on Implementing High-Level Iranian Space Policy Plans and Documents......Page 623
A Glance at the Space Security of Iran......Page 624
Conclusion......Page 626
References......Page 627
34 UAE Approach to Space and Security......Page 629
Introduction......Page 630
The Importance of Space to the UAE......Page 631
National Regulatory Framework for the UAE Space Sector......Page 633
The UAE´s Contribution to International Space Cooperation......Page 635
The UAE Space Economy......Page 636
The UAE Space Strategy´s Contribution to Space2030 Agenda......Page 637
Indicator 2: Better Monitoring of Climate and Environment to Predict Crisis......Page 642
Indicator 1: Optimized Agriculture......Page 643
Indicator 2: Monitoring Public Health via EO Applications......Page 644
Indicator 1: Women´s Active Role in Space Exploration, Science, Industry, Policy, and Diplomacy......Page 645
Indicator 2: Innovative Launch Technologies......Page 646
Indicator 1: EO Data for Safety, Disaster Management, Pollution and Climate Change Monitoring, Energy Management and Land Use .........Page 647
Indicator 1: Earth Observation Data Key for Climate Change, Pollution Monitoring, and Mitigation Strategies......Page 648
Indicator 1: PPP at Local Levels (Public + Industry + R&D + Academia)......Page 649
The UAE Space Policy Contribution to the LTS Guidelines......Page 650
Guideline A.2: Consider a Number of Elements when Developing, Revising, or Amending, as Necessary, National Regulatory Framewo.........Page 651
Guideline A.5: Enhance the Practice of Registering Space Objects......Page 652
Guideline B.4: Perform Conjunction Assessment During All Orbital Phases of Controlled Flight......Page 653
Guideline C.1: Promote and Facilitate International Cooperation in Support of the Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Acti.........Page 654
Guideline C.3: Promote and Support Capacity-Building......Page 655
Guideline C.4: Raise Awareness of Space Activities......Page 656
Guideline D.1: Promote and Support Research into and the Development of Ways to Support Sustainable Exploration and Use of Out.........Page 657
Conclusions......Page 658
References......Page 659
35 Space Security in Brazil......Page 661
Introduction......Page 662
Brazilian Space Policy: An Overview......Page 664
Domestic Regulatory Instruments......Page 667
Brazilian Space Situational Awareness Initiatives......Page 670
Prevention of Arms Race in Outer Space: Brazilian Perspectives......Page 672
Conclusions......Page 673
References......Page 674
36 Space and Security Activities in Azerbaijan......Page 675
Introduction......Page 676
Azercosmos: the Satellite Operator of Azerbaijan......Page 678
Satellite Imagery Sources and Analysis Methodology......Page 680
Environmental Damage......Page 682
Permanent Infrastructure Changes......Page 683
Exploitation and Pillage of Natural Resources......Page 687
Destruction of Public and Private Property, Including Historical and Cultural Heritage......Page 690
Exploitation of Agricultural and Water Resources......Page 695
Implantation of Settlers and Construction of Permanent Social Infrastructure......Page 702
Conclusion......Page 705
Further Reading......Page 706
Part III: Space Applications and Supporting Services for Security and Defense......Page 707
Focus Areas......Page 708
Conclusions......Page 710
38 Earth Observation for Security and Defense......Page 712
Earth Observation Security and Defense Application Landscape......Page 713
Earth Observation Missions and Applications for Security and Defense......Page 717
Security and Defense EO Application......Page 720
Examples of EO Operational Tasks......Page 724
Copernicus SEA......Page 726
Copernicus Security Services......Page 729
SEA Service Portfolio......Page 730
SatCen Service Evolution: Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning......Page 731
Copernicus SEA Service Evolution......Page 733
Conclusion......Page 735
References......Page 736
39 Satellite EO for Disasters, Risk, and Security: An Evolving Landscape......Page 739
Introduction......Page 740
The Copernicus Emergency Management Service: The Hurricane Irma Example......Page 741
Copernicus EMS Rapid Mapping Service......Page 742
Copernicus EMS Risk and Recovery Mapping Service......Page 745
Copernicus EMS Early Warning: EFAS-GloFAS and EFFIS-GWIS......Page 751
Risk and Risk Mitigation......Page 752
Exposure......Page 753
Vulnerability......Page 754
New Satellite Missions......Page 756
Data Philosophies, New Sources, and Standards/Guidelines/Best Practices......Page 757
Initiatives and Services (Copernicus Security SEA)......Page 759
Conclusions......Page 762
References......Page 763
40 Space-Enabled Systems for Food Security in Africa......Page 764
Introduction......Page 765
The Rationale for Improving System Efficiency, Integration, and Optimization......Page 766
Remote Sensing Imagery and Environmental Data......Page 769
Information Transmission......Page 770
Integrated Decision Support......Page 771
Infrastructure Backbone......Page 772
End-User Interfaces......Page 773
An Example of an Integrated Agriculture Decision Support System......Page 774
An Integration Model in Practice......Page 777
Legal, Political, and Economic Considerations......Page 778
Conclusions......Page 779
References......Page 781
41 Satellite Communication for Security and Defense......Page 784
Introduction - Historical Evolution......Page 785
SATCOM Frequency Bands and Orbits......Page 787
Governmental SATCOM (GOVSATCOM)......Page 789
Operational Needs......Page 790
Use Cases and Applications......Page 791
United States......Page 792
France......Page 793
Italy......Page 794
Luxemburg......Page 795
Other European Activities......Page 796
Russia......Page 797
European Union (EU)......Page 798
European Space Agency (ESA)......Page 799
Conclusion, Outlook and Perspectives......Page 800
References......Page 801
42 Position, Navigation, and Timing for Security......Page 802
Introduction......Page 803
Overview of Existing GNSS......Page 804
Description and Development of GNSS Systems......Page 805
The US Global Positioning System......Page 806
GPS Modernization (Fig. 3)......Page 808
The Russian GLONASS System......Page 809
The Chinese BeiDou (Compass) System......Page 810
The European GNSS Galileo and EGNOS Systems......Page 811
Concept of GNSS Interoperability......Page 814
Vulnerabilities of GNSS Services......Page 816
Deliberate Threats to GNSS Services......Page 817
PMR: A Combined Use of GNSS and TETRA/TETRAPOL (Fig. 11)......Page 819
GNSS, Galileo, and Timing for Secured Applications......Page 821
The PRS and the Brexit......Page 822
References......Page 823
Internet Links......Page 824
43 PNT for Defense......Page 825
Introduction......Page 826
History of Space-Based PNT for Defense......Page 827
GNSS PNT for Defense Users......Page 829
GNSS Services and Systems......Page 832
Alternative Space-Based PNT......Page 833
Modernization of Space-Based Secured PNT Services......Page 836
Multi-constellation Defense GNSS Receivers......Page 837
Developments in Europe......Page 839
Other PNT Sources......Page 840
PNT Superiority Impact on Military Tasks......Page 842
Conclusion......Page 845
References......Page 846
44 Space Traffic Management Through Environment Capacity......Page 848
Introduction......Page 849
Current Global Actions Undertaken to Preserve the Space Environment......Page 851
The Limits of Space Debris Mitigation as We Know It and Beyond......Page 858
Towards an Environment Capacity......Page 860
Applications Related to Environment Capacity......Page 865
Conclusions......Page 866
References......Page 867
45 Various Threats of Space Systems......Page 868
Introduction......Page 869
Change of Strategic Landscape: A Succession of Disturbing Events......Page 870
Early Armed Threats in Space......Page 872
A Generic List of Possible (Intentional) Threats in Orbit: Assessing Offensive Realities of Today......Page 874
The Notion of ``Space Threats´´ and Its Relevance for the Security of Space Activities......Page 877
Alleged Risks of ``Cyberattacks´´......Page 878
The General Vulnerability of the Ground Segment......Page 880
The Case of Orbital Hazardous Events: The Example of ``Zombiesats´´......Page 881
Some Effects on Space Deterrence: Protecting Against What Threat and/or Vulnerability?......Page 882
Conclusions......Page 883
References......Page 884
46 European Space Surveillance and Tracking Support Framework......Page 885
Introduction......Page 886
Background......Page 887
Legal Basis......Page 889
A Consortium of European Member States in Cooperation with Council Agency......Page 890
Internal Governance......Page 891
Transatlantic Relationship......Page 893
Service Provision Model Based on Internal Specialization......Page 894
Sensor Network......Page 895
Data Processing & Data Policy......Page 896
Services......Page 897
Users......Page 898
Evolution as a Sensor Network......Page 899
Evolution in the EU Space Program......Page 900
Evolution in the Context of Space Traffic Management......Page 901
Conclusion......Page 902
References......Page 903
47 China´s Capabilities and Priorities in Space-Based Safety and Security Applications......Page 907
China´s Space Safety and Security Policy......Page 908
Earth Observation (EO)......Page 909
Ocean Satellite Series......Page 910
Environment and Disaster Monitoring and Forecasting Small Satellite Constellation......Page 911
Communication Satellites......Page 912
Satellite Positioning, Navigation, and Timing System......Page 914
Space Situation Awareness......Page 916
International Exchanges and Cooperation on China´s Space Safety and Security......Page 918
References......Page 920
48 Cybersecurity Space Operation Center: Countering Cyber Threats in the Space Domain......Page 922
Introduction......Page 923
Description of the Cyber Threat Landscape Affecting Space-Based Information Systems......Page 926
Electronic Warfare and Cyber Defense Convergence......Page 927
Managed Cybersecurity of Space Systems Is Key......Page 929
Challenges and Recommended Actions......Page 930
Baseline Functions of a Cybersecurity Space Operations Center (CySOC)......Page 931
Managed Detection and Response Support (MDRS)......Page 932
Specialized Services......Page 933
Concept of Operations......Page 934
Additional Capabilities of a Cybersecurity Space Operation Center (CySOC)......Page 935
Introduction......Page 936
Training Environments......Page 937
Evaluating Training Results......Page 938
Conclusions......Page 939
References......Page 940
49 AI and Space Safety: Collision Risk Assessment......Page 941
Introduction......Page 942
Space Safety System......Page 944
Artificial Intelligence in Engineering......Page 948
Artificial Intelligence in Space Safety......Page 950
Challenges for the Future......Page 955
Conclusions......Page 957
References......Page 958
50 Space Object Behavior Quantification and Assessment for Space Security......Page 960
Introduction......Page 961
Space Domain Awareness Goals: Knowing and Predicting Events and Processes......Page 963
Human-Based (Soft Inputs)......Page 966
Standards, Calibration, and Metadata......Page 967
The Importance of ``Independent Observations´´ and Big Data......Page 968
Space Domain Information Fusion: A Model......Page 969
Level 0......Page 971
Level 1......Page 972
Level 4......Page 973
Space Surveillance and Tracking......Page 974
SSN Sensors (Taken Directly from a USSTRATCOM Fact Sheet)......Page 975
Space Object Tracking......Page 976
Summary......Page 982
References......Page 983
51 Space Security and Frequency Management......Page 984
Introduction......Page 985
Major Principles......Page 987
Frequency Allocation Structure......Page 988
Regulations Applying to the Use of Frequencies and Orbits by Satellite Networks......Page 989
Advance Publication Information (API) Procedure......Page 990
Procedure for Effecting Coordination of Frequency Assignments......Page 991
Non-GSO FSS Satellite System: Particular Features......Page 992
Notification and Recording in the MIFR......Page 994
Bringing into Use of a Satellite Network......Page 995
Responsibilities of the Notifying Administration After Recording in the MIFR......Page 996
Non-GSO Satellites with Short Duration Mission (SDM)......Page 997
FSS Plan and Its Associated Procedures (Appendix 30B)......Page 998
Administrative Due Diligence......Page 999
Preventing Harmful Interference to Satellite Systems: Non-interference as a Norm......Page 1000
Security Aspects and Protection of Frequency Assignments Recorded in the MIFR......Page 1001
References......Page 1003
52 Space Weather: The Impact on Security and Defense......Page 1004
Introduction......Page 1005
Space Weather from the Sun to the User......Page 1006
Historical Space Weather Events with Defense and Security Impact......Page 1008
The Disappearance of the HMS Acheron......Page 1009
Jamming Missile Warning Systems......Page 1011
Unexpected Detonation of Sea Mines......Page 1013
The Battle of Takur Ghar......Page 1014
Solar Flares Hampering Hurricane Relief Efforts......Page 1016
The Research and Observation Challenge......Page 1017
The Societal Challenge......Page 1018
Maintaining Awareness......Page 1019
Specific Defense Challenges......Page 1020
Conclusion......Page 1022
Further Reading......Page 1023
53 Space Security in the Context of Cosmic Hazards and Planetary Defense......Page 1024
Introduction......Page 1025
Cosmic Hazards from Potentially Hazards Asteroids and Comets......Page 1028
Protective Strategies for Planetary Defense Against Asteroids and Comets......Page 1032
Solar Weather and Ionic Storms that Threaten Planet Earth......Page 1033
Solar Shields and Other Planetary Defense Strategies......Page 1036
The Complication of the Earth´s Shifting Magnetosphere......Page 1038
Conclusions and Strategies for the Future......Page 1039
References......Page 1040
54 Active Debris Removal for Mega-constellation Reliability......Page 1041
Introduction......Page 1042
Reliability Simulation Model for Satellite Constellation......Page 1043
Propagation......Page 1044
Simulation Process......Page 1046
Replenishment Scenarios......Page 1047
Marketing Model for Satellite Mega-constellation......Page 1048
Population Map and Market Penetration......Page 1049
Model Validation......Page 1052
Commercialization of ADR and Insurance Strategy......Page 1053
References......Page 1058
55 Space Security and Sustainable Space Operations: A Commercial Satellite Operator Perspective......Page 1060
Introduction......Page 1061
Space Operations in GEO......Page 1062
Space Operations in LEO, MEO, and Transit Orbits......Page 1066
Protection of Satellites Services from and at Earth......Page 1069
Conclusion......Page 1072
References......Page 1075
56 Space Debris Mitigation Systems: Policy Perspectives......Page 1076
Introduction......Page 1077
Current Situation of Space Debris and Risk Posed to Long-Term Sustainability......Page 1078
Drawing Analogies Between Outer Space and Maritime for the Regulation of Space Debris......Page 1079
Need for New Rules Ensuring Sustainable Development for the Evolution of Satellites......Page 1080
Ongoing Search for Space Authority......Page 1081
ITU Role in Leading Regulation on Space Debris......Page 1082
ITU Role in Guaranteeing Space Security Against the Debris Threat......Page 1083
Discussion: Fairway Charges in Space, a Starting Point for Space Debris Regulation?......Page 1084
References......Page 1085
57 Security Exceptions to the Free Dissemination of Remote Sensing Data: Interactions Between the International, National, and.........Page 1087
Introduction......Page 1088
Introduction......Page 1089
Scope of Application and Security......Page 1091
Free Use and Dissemination......Page 1093
Security Limiting Dissemination......Page 1094
Security as a National Exception to Principles of International Law......Page 1096
Introduction......Page 1099
Scope of the SDSA......Page 1100
National Security Restrictions in the SDSA......Page 1101
Regional Context and the SDSA......Page 1104
Introduction......Page 1105
Open Access Policy and Security Restrictions......Page 1107
Sentinel Data......Page 1111
Contributing Mission Data......Page 1112
Conclusion......Page 1114
UNGA Resolutions......Page 1115
European Instruments......Page 1116
Doctrine......Page 1117
Part IV: Space Security Programs Worldwide and Space Economy Worldwide......Page 1118
Introduction......Page 1119
Space Security Programs......Page 1120
The Economy of the Space Sector......Page 1123
The Role of International Organizations for Space Security......Page 1124
References......Page 1125
59 Satellite Programs in the USA......Page 1126
Introduction......Page 1127
Background......Page 1128
Introduction......Page 1129
Advanced Extremely High Frequency (AEHF) and Milstar......Page 1131
MUOS and UFO......Page 1133
Wideband Global SATCOM (WGS)......Page 1136
Data Relay......Page 1137
Interim and Enhanced Polar System (IPS/EPS)......Page 1138
Global Positioning System (GPS)......Page 1139
Optical Imaging Satellites......Page 1144
Imaging Radar Satellites......Page 1147
Missile Early Warning Satellites......Page 1148
Nuclear Detonation Detection System......Page 1151
Signals Intelligence Satellites: Non-maritime......Page 1152
Maritime Signals Intelligence Satellites......Page 1154
Weather Satellites......Page 1155
Space-Based Space Surveillance (SBSS)......Page 1157
GSSAP......Page 1158
Research Satellites......Page 1159
Future Prospects......Page 1161
References......Page 1162
60 Russian Space Launch Program......Page 1163
Main Launch Vehicles......Page 1164
Angara Launch Vehicle Family......Page 1166
Soyuz-2 Launch Vehicle Family......Page 1167
Soyuz-FG......Page 1168
Strela......Page 1169
Rockot......Page 1170
Operating Cosmodromes......Page 1172
Baikonur Cosmodrome: Kazakhstan......Page 1173
Plesetsk Cosmodrome......Page 1174
From Svobodny to Vostochny Cosmodrome......Page 1175
Kapustin Yar......Page 1176
Guiana Space Centre......Page 1177
Sea Launch......Page 1178
Conclusions......Page 1179
References......Page 1181
61 Institutional Space Security Programs in Europe......Page 1182
Introduction......Page 1183
The European Union......Page 1184
European Commission......Page 1185
European External Action Service......Page 1186
European Defence Agency......Page 1187
European Union Satellite Centre......Page 1188
Copernicus Operational Services......Page 1189
EDA Activities and Programs......Page 1190
Governmental Satellite Communications: GOVSATCOM......Page 1192
EDA-ESA......Page 1193
Galileo......Page 1194
GSA......Page 1195
EU SST Program......Page 1196
ESA Space Security Status......Page 1198
Earth Observation: EO......Page 1199
Copernicus......Page 1200
Secure Satcom for Safety & Security (4S)......Page 1201
ScyLight......Page 1202
Positioning, Navigation, and Timing: PNT......Page 1203
Space Safety Programme (S2P)......Page 1204
SSA Programme......Page 1205
NATO Space and Security Status......Page 1206
Earth Observation: EO/Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance - ISR......Page 1207
Satellite Communications: SATCOM......Page 1209
Positioning, Navigation, and Timing: PNT......Page 1210
Conclusion......Page 1211
References......Page 1212
62 Space and Security Programs in the Largest European Countries......Page 1216
Introduction......Page 1217
Earth Observation (EO): Intelligence-Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR)......Page 1218
Satellite Communications (SATCOM)......Page 1221
Positioning, Navigation, and Timing......Page 1223
Space Situational Awareness (SSA)......Page 1224
Electronic Intelligence (ELINT)......Page 1226
Earth Observation (EO): Intelligence Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR)......Page 1228
Satellite Communications (SATCOM)......Page 1232
Space Situational Awareness (SSA)......Page 1233
Space and Security Budget......Page 1234
Earth Observation (EO): Intelligence Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR)......Page 1235
Satellite Communications (SATCOM)......Page 1236
Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT)......Page 1237
Space Situational Awareness (SSA)......Page 1238
Earth Observation (EO): Intelligence Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR)......Page 1239
Satellite Communications (SATCOM)......Page 1241
Space Situational Awareness (SSA)......Page 1242
Earth Observation (EO): Intelligence Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR)......Page 1243
Satellite Communications (SATCOM)......Page 1245
Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT)......Page 1246
Concluding Remarks......Page 1247
References......Page 1248
63 Space and Security Programs in Medium-Sized European Countries......Page 1255
Introduction......Page 1256
Earth Observation (EO) - Intelligence - Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR)......Page 1257
Space and Security Budget......Page 1258
Satellite Communications (SATCOM)......Page 1259
Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT)......Page 1260
Space and Security Budget......Page 1261
Earth Observation (EO) - Intelligence-Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR)......Page 1262
Satellite Communications (SATCOM)......Page 1263
Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT)......Page 1264
Space and Security Budget......Page 1265
Satellite Communications (SATCOM)......Page 1266
Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT)......Page 1267
Space Situational Awareness (SSA)......Page 1268
Space and Security Budget......Page 1269
Positioning, Navigation and Timing (PNT)......Page 1270
Space and Security Budget......Page 1271
Earth Observation (EO) - Intelligence-Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR)......Page 1272
Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT)......Page 1273
Concluding Remarks......Page 1274
References......Page 1275
64 Space and Security Programs in Smaller European Countries......Page 1278
Introduction......Page 1280
Earth Observation (EO)-Intelligence-Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR)......Page 1281
Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT)......Page 1282
Space and Security Budget......Page 1283
Earth Observation (EO)-Intelligence-Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR)......Page 1284
Satellite Communications (SATCOM)......Page 1285
Space Situational Awareness (SSA)......Page 1286
Earth Observation (EO)-Intelligence-Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR)......Page 1287
Satellite Communications (SATCOM)......Page 1288
Space Situational Awareness (SSA)......Page 1289
Space and Security Program......Page 1290
Earth Observation (EO)-Intelligence-Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR)......Page 1291
Satellite Communications (SATCOM)......Page 1292
Space Situational Awareness (SSA)......Page 1293
Earth Observation (EO)-Intelligence-Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR)......Page 1294
Space Situational Awareness (SSA)......Page 1295
Earth Observation (EO)-Intelligence-Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR)......Page 1296
Space Situational Awareness (SSA)......Page 1297
Earth Observation (EO)-Intelligence-Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR)......Page 1298
Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT)......Page 1299
Earth Observation (EO)-Intelligence-Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR)......Page 1300
Satellite Communications (SATCOM)......Page 1301
Space and Security Budget......Page 1302
Earth Observation (EO)-Intelligence-Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR)......Page 1303
Satellite Communications (SATCOM)......Page 1304
Space Situational Awareness (SSA)......Page 1305
Space and Security Budget......Page 1306
Earth Observation (EO)-Intelligence-Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR)......Page 1307
Satellite Communications (SATCOM)......Page 1308
Space Situational Awareness (SSA)......Page 1309
Space and Security Program......Page 1310
Earth Observation (EO)-Intelligence-Surveillance-Reconnaissance (ISR)......Page 1311
Satellite Communications (SATCOM)......Page 1312
Concluding Remarks......Page 1313
References......Page 1314
65 Future of French Space Security Programs......Page 1318
Dependency......Page 1319
Attack Directed Against the Satellite Itself from the Ground......Page 1321
Jamming......Page 1322
Origins......Page 1323
Organization and Capacities......Page 1324
Second Principle: Knowledge......Page 1326
Fourth Principle: Action......Page 1327
Modernization......Page 1328
Cooperation Within the EU......Page 1329
References......Page 1331
66 Italy in Space: Strategic Overview and Security Aspects......Page 1332
Introduction......Page 1333
The Origin......Page 1334
History......Page 1335
New Governance in Italian Space and Aerospace Sector......Page 1336
Launchers......Page 1338
Telecommunication......Page 1340
Earth Observation......Page 1341
``Piero Fanti´´ Space Centre - Fucino (L´Aquila)......Page 1342
SICRAL Joint Control Center - Vigna di Valle (Roma)......Page 1343
From Upstream to Downstream, Through Midstream......Page 1344
Space Security......Page 1345
Space Threats......Page 1346
Space Surveillance......Page 1347
New Policy......Page 1348
Pillars......Page 1350
Needs for a Strategy......Page 1351
References......Page 1352
Introduction......Page 1353
Spacepower: Its Time Has Come......Page 1355
British Space Policy and Strategy......Page 1356
Capabilities......Page 1359
Communications......Page 1360
ISR/EO......Page 1362
Navigation......Page 1364
Conclusion......Page 1365
References......Page 1366
68 Chinese Satellite Program......Page 1368
Introduction......Page 1369
Fengyun......Page 1370
Ziyuan......Page 1371
Small Satellite Constellation for Environment and Disaster Monitoring and Forecasting......Page 1372
Commercial Remote Sensing Satellites......Page 1373
Communications and Broadcasting Satellites......Page 1374
Navigation and Positioning Satellites......Page 1376
Shijian Series......Page 1378
Shijian-10......Page 1379
China Seismo-electromagnetic Satellite......Page 1380
Tianyuan-1......Page 1381
Earth Observation Satellites......Page 1382
Communications and Broadcasting Satellites......Page 1383
International Exchanges and Cooperation......Page 1384
Further Reading......Page 1386
69 Chinese Space Launch Program......Page 1387
Development Background of China´s Launch Vehicles......Page 1388
Launching Plan and Development of China´s Launch Vehicles......Page 1389
LM-2C in Three-Stage State......Page 1392
LM-2D......Page 1394
LM-2F......Page 1395
LM-3A......Page 1396
LM-3B......Page 1397
LM-3C......Page 1398
LM-4B......Page 1399
LM-4C......Page 1400
LM-5......Page 1401
LM-11......Page 1402
China´s Space Security Policy......Page 1403
Space Debris Mitigation of Long March Launch Vehicles......Page 1404
References......Page 1405
70 Indian Space Program: Evolution, Dimensions, and Initiatives......Page 1406
Introduction......Page 1407
Initiation Phase (1960-1970s)......Page 1408
Experimental Phase (1980s)......Page 1409
Expansion Phase (2000s)......Page 1410
Space Applications......Page 1411
Space Infrastructure......Page 1413
Space Transportation System......Page 1415
The Human Spaceflight Program: A New Beginning in the Indian Space Program......Page 1418
Small Satellite Launch Vehicle......Page 1420
Reusable Launch Vehicle: Technology Demonstrations......Page 1421
Hypersonic Air-Breathing Engine......Page 1423
References......Page 1424
71 Australia´s Space Security Program......Page 1425
Introduction......Page 1426
Australia´s Dependence on Space......Page 1427
National Security and Space......Page 1428
Australian Defence Policy......Page 1429
Defence Integrated Investment Program......Page 1431
Next Generation Technologies Fund......Page 1432
Equatorial Launch Australia......Page 1433
Gilmour Space Launch Services......Page 1434
References......Page 1436
72 Pakistan´s Space Activities......Page 1438
Pakistan´s National Space Agency......Page 1439
Historical Milestones in Space by Pakistan......Page 1440
Space Budget......Page 1441
Space Educational Institutions......Page 1443
Pakistan´s Space Security and Governance......Page 1444
Pakistan´s Space Strategic Priorities: Socioeconomic Benefits......Page 1447
International Cooperation......Page 1449
Pakistan´s Space Vision 2047......Page 1450
References......Page 1451
73 Space Sector Economy and Space Programs World Wide......Page 1453
Introduction......Page 1454
The Space Sector Economy and Activities......Page 1455
The Institutional Space Sector......Page 1457
The Commercial Space Sector......Page 1462
Forecasts for Government Space Budgets and Programs......Page 1466
References......Page 1478
74 The New Space Economy: Consequences for Space Security in Europe......Page 1480
The New Space Economy: A Push Coming from the USA......Page 1481
The Transformation of Space Security......Page 1483
European Space: A Resilient Model......Page 1485
Conclusion......Page 1489
References......Page 1491
75 Political Economy of Outer Space Security......Page 1492
Introduction......Page 1493
Security Dimensions and Challenges in Space......Page 1494
Industry......Page 1496
Trade Balance Effects and Atypical Patterns of the Aerospace and Defense Sector......Page 1502
Wider Economy......Page 1508
Commercial Space as a Space Race Catalyst......Page 1509
Political Economy and Security in Space: Institutional Dimensions......Page 1510
References......Page 1513
76 Views on Space Security in the United Nations......Page 1515
Introduction......Page 1516
Defining Space Security......Page 1517
Space Security in the UN System......Page 1518
Space Security Within UN International Security and Disarmament Settings......Page 1521
1980s and 1990s: PAROS and the Search for Various Space CBMs......Page 1522
2000-2015: Draft PPWT and New GGE on TCBMs - Parallel Efforts on Legally and Non-Legally Binding Instruments......Page 1523
2017-Today: New GGE on PAROS, CD Subsidiary Body 3, and UNDC WG on TCBMs - Three Parallel Initiatives for Short- and Long-Term.........Page 1526
Space Security Within UN Space Settings......Page 1529
The United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space......Page 1530
The UN COPUOS Working Group on the Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities......Page 1531
Conclusions......Page 1534
References......Page 1536
Further Readings......Page 1537
77 The Role of COSPAR for Space Security and Planetary Protection......Page 1538
Introduction......Page 1539
The Committee on Space Research......Page 1540
Policies of Planetary Protection......Page 1541
Scientific Regulation Tthrough Planetary Quarantine Requirements......Page 1542
Revisions to the PQR......Page 1544
The Moon Agreement and Elaboration of Legal Regulation......Page 1545
Categorization of Target Bodies......Page 1546
Category III: Flyby and Orbiter Mission to Mars, Europa, and Enceladus......Page 1547
Category V Sample Return Missions......Page 1548
Human Missions to Mars......Page 1549
Implementation of the COSPAR PPP by Space Agencies and Authorities......Page 1550
The United States......Page 1551
Russia......Page 1552
China/India/UAE......Page 1553
Expand Target Bodies in Categories III and IV......Page 1554
Missions to Phobos and Deimos Can Increase the Risk of Contaminating Mars......Page 1555
Challenges to Planetary Protection by Private Sector Commercial Projects......Page 1556
Conclusion......Page 1557
References......Page 1558
Additional Reading......Page 1559
Index......Page 1560