Handbook of Response to Intervention: The Science and Practice of Multi-Tiered Systems of Support

Foreword......Page 6
Acknowledgments......Page 7
Contents......Page 8
About the Editors......Page 13
Contributors......Page 17
From Response to Intervention to Multi-Tiered Systems of Support: Advances in the Science and Practice of Assessment and Intervention......Page 22
 Current Practices to Enhance Student Achievement......Page 23
 Context for the Current Edition......Page 25
 Future Direction and Challenges......Page 26
 References......Page 27
 Foundations of Science......Page 28
   Why Data-Based Decisions? A Personal Story......Page 29
   DBPM Assumptions and Current Considerations......Page 30
   Distinguishing Between Dependent and Independent Variable Data......Page 37
   Making Decisions for Individual Students......Page 39
   Data-Based Problem-Solving in RTI......Page 40
   Conclusion......Page 46
   References......Page 47
  Applied Behavior Analysis: A Foundation for Response to Intervention......Page 49
   Selecting Target Behaviors......Page 51
   Selecting and Developing Interventions......Page 53
   Measuring Intervention Effects......Page 57
   References......Page 59
   Definitions......Page 63
    Eligibility and Exit......Page 64
    Tiers of Service Delivery......Page 67
    Evidence-Based Instruction......Page 68
    Universal Screening......Page 69
    Progress Monitoring......Page 71
   Areas for Future Research......Page 73
   Universal Screening......Page 74
   Implications for Practice......Page 75
   References......Page 76
  Prevention and Response to Intervention: Past, Present, and Future......Page 79
    The Emergence of Comprehensive Prevention Models (1950–1970)......Page 80
    New Focus, New Models of Prevention (1971–1990)......Page 81
    The Emergence and Growth of Prevention Science (1991–present)......Page 82
    NICHD Research on Reading Disabilities......Page 84
    Other Prevention Concepts in RTI......Page 85
    Efficacy......Page 86
    Dissemination......Page 87
   Prevention Science and Future Directions for RTI Research and Practice......Page 88
   References......Page 89
  Problem-Solving Consultation......Page 92
    Origins and Evolution......Page 93
    The Process of Problem-Solving Consultation......Page 95
   Response to Intervention......Page 97
   Areas for Future Research......Page 100
   References......Page 102
 Foundations of Practice......Page 106
   Evolution of Professional Learning Communities......Page 107
   Characteristics of PLCs......Page 109
   Research on Professional Learning Communities......Page 110
   PLCs and Response to Intervention Approaches......Page 112
   Resources for Implementing PLCs......Page 116
   Areas for Future Research......Page 117
   References......Page 118
   Data Used in RTI and PBIS......Page 120
   Data-Analysis Teaming, RTI, and PBIS Systems......Page 122
   Data Warehousing......Page 123
   Data Warehousing Examples......Page 125
   Implications for Practice......Page 134
   References......Page 136
   Evidence-Based Practices Within Multi-Tiered Systems of Support......Page 138
   Evidence-Based Practices for Improving Academic and Social Behavioral Outcomes......Page 140
   Applications of MTSS and EBP in Academic Domains......Page 142
   Applications of MTSS and EBP in Social–Emotional and Behavioral Domains......Page 146
   Questions Regarding EBPs to Address Concerns Within MTSS......Page 152
   Summary, Future Research, and Needed Practice Directions......Page 153
   References......Page 154
  Preservice Teacher Education and Response to Intervention Within Multi-Tiered Systems of Support:......Page 159
   The Empirical Research Base......Page 160
   Linking PT Education to Current Practices Within RTI-Relevant Research: Suggestions for Teacher Educators and Policy-Makers......Page 161
   Concluding Thoughts and Suggestions for Future Research......Page 175
   References......Page 176
   Standards-Based Accountability and Reform......Page 180
    English Language Arts......Page 183
    Mathematics......Page 186
    Teacher Education and Professional Development......Page 189
    Assessment......Page 190
   Response to Intervention/Multi-Tiered Systems of Support......Page 191
   Implications for Both General and Special Education......Page 192
   Considerations and Recommendations......Page 193
   Areas for Future Research......Page 196
   References......Page 197
 Tier 1– Assessment, Problem Analysis, and Intervention......Page 200
  Screening Assessment Within a Multi-Tiered System of Support: Current Practices, Advances, and Next Steps......Page 201
   Screening: Observed Practices and Common Measures......Page 202
   Academic Screening: The Need for Improvement......Page 204
    Reconsidering Screening Format......Page 205
   Determining Whom to Treat and Evaluating the Accuracy of Screening Measures......Page 207
    Current Problems and Challenges in Determining Screening Accuracy and Whom to Treat......Page 211
    Improving our Evaluation of Screening and Determining Whom to Treat......Page 213
   Summary, Implications, Next Steps, and Recommendations for Practice......Page 219
    Thinking Differently About Screening “Accuracy” Risk Determination......Page 220
   References......Page 221
  The Role of Tier I Mathematics Instruction in Elementary and Middle Schools: Promoting Mathematics Success......Page 228
   Promoting Mathematics Success Through Effective Core Instruction: Content and Focus of Instructional Programs and Practices......Page 229
   Relevant Research and Evidence of Effectiveness of Tier 1 Instructional Programs......Page 230
   High Intensity, Explicit Instruction......Page 231
   Medium Intensity, Explicit Instruction......Page 236
   Low Intensity, Explicit Instruction......Page 241
   Limitations and Implications for Future Research......Page 242
   References......Page 244
   English Language Arts Common Core State Standards......Page 247
   Classroom Reading Instruction in the Primary Grades......Page 250
   Classroom Reading Instruction in the Secondary Grades......Page 254
   High-Quality Tier 1 Reading Instruction in the Secondary Grades......Page 255
   Current Tier 1 Practices in the Secondary Grades......Page 258
   References......Page 260
  Classwide Intervention Using Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies......Page 265
   PALS Addresses Critical Academic Skills that Align with Core Standards......Page 266
   PALS Provides Opportunities to Differentiate Instruction......Page 270
   PALS has Evidence of Efficacy for Diverse Learners in General Education Classrooms......Page 271
   Professional Development and Support Improves Fidelity of PALS Implementation......Page 274
   PALS May Be Adapted to Meet Specific Classroom and Student Needs......Page 276
   Implications for Practice......Page 277
   Conclusion......Page 278
   References......Page 279
 Tier 2– Assessment, Problem Analysis, and Intervention......Page 281
   Context of Progress Monitoring at Tier 2......Page 282
   Conceptual Considerations for Progress Monitoring in Tier 2......Page 283
   Technical and Practical Considerations for Progress Monitoring at Tier 2......Page 286
    Monitoring Vocabulary Progress......Page 288
    Monitoring Progress in the Content Areas......Page 289
    Reliability and Validity of Change......Page 290
    Sensitivity of Change......Page 293
    Linearity of Change......Page 294
    Standards and Expectations of Change......Page 296
   Conclusions......Page 297
   References......Page 299
   Research Regarding the Need to Target Tier 2 Interventions......Page 303
    Comprehensive Intervention Packages for Reading......Page 304
    Targeted Interventions for Mathematics......Page 305
    Measures......Page 306
    Diagnostic Assessment Process......Page 307
    Interventions......Page 309
   Results......Page 311
   Implications for Practice and Research......Page 312
    Implications for Practice......Page 313
    Implications for Research......Page 314
   References......Page 315
  Multilevel Response-to-Intervention Prevention Systems: Mathematics Intervention at Tier 2......Page 318
    Six Design Principles......Page 319
    Innovations in Tier 2 Intervention......Page 323
    Early Arithmetic Skill at First Grade......Page 324
    Conceptual Understanding and Procedural Skill with Fractions at Fourth Grade......Page 328
   Need for Future Research......Page 333
   References......Page 335
   Research Base for Tier 2 Interventions......Page 338
    Delivery of Tier 2 Interventions......Page 339
    Content of Tier 2 Interventions......Page 340
    Delivery of Tier 2 Interventions......Page 341
    Study Implementation......Page 342
    Findings......Page 343
   Implications and Future Research......Page 347
   References......Page 348
 Tier 3- Assessment, Problem Analysis, and Intervention......Page 350
   Purpose of Progress Monitoring......Page 351
    Data to Inform Tier 3 Decision-Making......Page 352
   Evidence for Monitoring Progress within RTI Systems......Page 354
    Has the Student Learned What Was Taught?......Page 355
   Considerations and Implications of Progress-Monitoring Research......Page 356
     Data Quality......Page 357
    Duration and Schedule......Page 358
   Making Decisions Based on Progress-Monitoring Data......Page 360
    Future Directions for Research......Page 363
   References......Page 365
  Introduction to Problem Analysis to Identify Tier 3 Interventions: Brief Experimental Analysis of Academic Problems......Page 369
   An Experimental Approach to Selecting Academic Interventions......Page 370
    Basic Procedures......Page 372
    Evidence for Use......Page 375
    BEA Within RTI......Page 378
   Conclusion......Page 379
   References......Page 380
    Description of Student Mathematics Difficulties......Page 382
    Overview of Mathematics Interventions......Page 383
   Key Features of Tier 3 Interventions......Page 385
    Treatment by Skill Match......Page 386
    Self-Instruction......Page 389
    Productive Opportunities to Practice......Page 390
    Motivation......Page 391
   References......Page 392
  Tier 3 Primary Grade Reading Interventions: Can We Distinguish Necessary from Sufficient?......Page 396
   Conceptual Framework......Page 400
   Sources of Variability in Tier 3 Practice......Page 401
   Relevant Research and Evidence of Effectiveness of Interventions......Page 402
   Tier 3 Instruction for Students with Intellectual Disabilities......Page 406
   Implications for Practice and Identifying Areas for Future Research......Page 407
   References......Page 408
 Contemporary Implementation Science......Page 412
  Assuring the Response to Intervention Process Has Substance: Assessing and Supporting Intervention Implementation......Page 413
   What Is Treatment/Procedural Integrity, Fidelity, or Implementation?undefined......Page 415
   Definition and Measurement of Intervention Plan Implementationundefined......Page 416
   Supporting Intervention Plan Implementationundefined......Page 418
    Antecedent Procedures to Improve Implementationundefined......Page 419
    Follow-Up Procedures to Improve Implementationundefined......Page 420
   The Link Between Implementation and Outcomesundefined......Page 421
   Implications for Practice, Research Needs, and Summaryundefined......Page 422
   References......Page 423
   Exclusionary Definitions......Page 427
   Cognitive Discrepancy Definitions......Page 428
    LD Is a Latent Construct......Page 429
    The Attributes of LDs Are Dimensional, Not Categorical......Page 430
   Response to Instruction and LD Identification......Page 431
   The Reliability and Validity of Methods Based on RTI Service Delivery Methods......Page 432
    Reliability Issues Related to Determining Intervention Response......Page 433
    Validity of Intervention Response as an Attribute of LD......Page 435
    Approaches Based on Low Achievement......Page 436
    Approaches Based on Aptitude–Achievement Discrepancies......Page 438
    Approaches Based on PSW......Page 439
   Some Potential Solutions......Page 440
   References......Page 443
   Ecological Systems Theory......Page 447
    Ysseldyke and Christenson Model of Student Learning......Page 449
    Tools for Ecological Assessment in RTI......Page 451
    Ecological Interventions in RTI......Page 454
    Future Research......Page 456
   Concluding Remarks......Page 457
   References......Page 458
  Using Single-Case Design in a Response to Intervention Model......Page 460
   Logic of Experimental Single-Case Design......Page 461
   Adapting the Single-Case Design for Applied Settings......Page 466
   References......Page 474
 Contemporary Implementation Topics......Page 476
   Overview and Description of easyCBM®......Page 477
    CBMs Applied in the Context of RTI......Page 478
   Technical Adequacy Considerations......Page 479
   Additional Technical Adequacy Considerations......Page 480
   Strengths of Technology-Based Assessments......Page 481
   Ways Technology-Based Assessment Enhances Decision-Making......Page 483
    Reflections and New Directions......Page 490
   Professional Development......Page 492
   References......Page 494
   Does Technology Impact Learning?......Page 497
   Educational Technology and Response to Intervention......Page 499
   Adaptive Instruction Across Tiers: Implementing Sound Instructional Methods and Progress Monitoring......Page 500
   Motivation......Page 501
   Technology and Reading Intervention......Page 502
   Technology and Mathematics Intervention......Page 503
   Limitations and Concerns of Technology-Based Interventions......Page 506
   Issues for Future Research......Page 507
    At the School Level......Page 509
    At the Teacher/Administrator Pre-Service Level......Page 510
   Appendix A. Critical Evaluation of an iPad/iPod App: Kathy Schrock......Page 511
   Appendix B. Educational App Evaluation Rubric: Tony Vincent......Page 512
   Appendix C. Educational App Evaluation Checklist: Tony Vincent......Page 513
   Appendix D. Mobile Application Selection Rubric: eSkillsLearning......Page 514
   Appendix E. ievaluate Apps for Special Needs: Jeannette Van Houten......Page 515
   Appendix F. AZ Technology Integration Matrix......Page 516
   Appendix F. AZ Technology Integration Matrix, cont.......Page 517
   References......Page 518
  Response to Intervention for English Learners......Page 522
    Types of Schools Attended by ELs......Page 523
    The Language and Reading Connection......Page 524
    ELD Instruction......Page 525
   Tier 1: The Need for High-Quality Reading and ELD Instruction......Page 527
    Instructional Practices that Support ELD......Page 528
    Differentiated Reading Instruction......Page 530
    Tier I Reading Screening for ELs......Page 532
    Early Literacy Interventions......Page 534
    Progress Monitoring and ELs......Page 536
   Conclusion and Recommendations......Page 537
   References......Page 538
  Essential Features of Tier 2 and 3 School-Wide Positive Behavioral Supports......Page 541
   Essential Features of Tier 2 and 3 SW-PBS Systems......Page 542
    Tier 2/3 SW-PBS Team......Page 543
    Student Identification for Tier 2/3 Supports......Page 545
    Intervention Matched with Student Need......Page 549
    Research-Based Interventions......Page 550
    Monitoring Student Progress......Page 551
    Monitoring Fidelity......Page 552
    Evaluating Impact......Page 554
    Empirical Support for Tier 2/3 SW-PBS......Page 556
    Recommendations for Future Research......Page 558
   References......Page 559
  Implementing Response to Intervention in Secondary Schools......Page 565
   Why is Secondary Implementation Lower and Slower?......Page 566
   What Is in it for Secondary Teachers: Real Life Scenarios with MTSS Solutions......Page 567
    MTSS Can Increase Attention to Research-Based Practices in Content-Area Classes......Page 568
    MTSS Can Increase the Range of Powerful Interventions for Students Who Need Them......Page 569
    MTSS Can Increase Special Education Quality......Page 571
    Embracing the Dual-Discrepancy Model As the Core of Secondary MTSS Design......Page 573
    Establishing the Dual Discrepancy As the Basis for SLD Eligibility......Page 577
    Providing the Intensive Basic Skill Interventions and Learning Strategies Students Need......Page 578
    Adopting Scientifically Based Basic Skills, IEP Goals, and Frequent Progress Monitoring......Page 580
   Teaming Strategies for Successful Secondary Implementation......Page 581
   Research Findings and Future Directions......Page 583
   References......Page 584
  Advances in Multi-Tiered Systems of Support for Prekindergarten Children: Lessons Learned from 5 Yea......Page 589
    Lessons Learned About Tier 1 Instruction......Page 591
    Implications for Practice, Policy, and Research......Page 592
    Research Overview......Page 593
    Implications for Practice, Policy, and Research......Page 594
    Lessons Learned About Tier 3 Language and Early Literacy Intervention......Page 596
    Research Overview......Page 598
    Research Overview......Page 600
    Lessons Learned About DBDM......Page 601
    Lessons Learned about DLL in Tier 1......Page 602
    Implications of the Findings for Practice, Policy, and Research......Page 603
   States’ Progress in Implementing RTI in Early Childhood......Page 604
   References......Page 605
  Teacher Formative Assessment: The Missing Link in Response to Intervention......Page 609
   Multi-Tiered Teacher Formative Assessment Mode......Page 611
    Theoretical Foundation of the CSS......Page 612
    The CSS Model......Page 615
    Training......Page 617
    Psychometric Characteristics......Page 618
   CSS Case Example......Page 620
   Conclusion......Page 621
   References......Page 622
 Effective Contemporary Models......Page 626
   Cultural Characteristics of RTI Implementation......Page 627
    Culture and RTI......Page 628
    Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports as a Model......Page 629
   Innovation and Sustainability as Essential Issues During Early Stages of Implementation......Page 630
    Exploration and Adoption......Page 631
    Program Installation......Page 634
    Initial Implementation......Page 636
   Conclusion......Page 638
   References......Page 639
  Making Response to Intervention Stick: Sustaining Implementation Past Your Retirement......Page 641
   Sustaining an RTI/MTSS Framework......Page 642
    Vision and Culture......Page 643
    Infrastructure......Page 644
    Implementation Plans......Page 647
    Professional Learning (Knowledge, Skills, and Self-Efficacy)......Page 648
    Incentives......Page 649
   District Implementation at SCRED......Page 650
    Effects of Implementation......Page 651
    Using Data to Drive Implementation......Page 652
    Lesson #5: Keep the Focus on Instruction and Provide Ample Support Through Coaching......Page 656
    Lesson #10: Avoid Entitlement Decisions Until Core RTI/MTSS Features Are in Place......Page 657
   References......Page 658
  Evaluating the Impact of Response to Intervention in Reading at the Elementary Level Across the State of Pennsylvania......Page 661
   Pennsylvania’s Response to Instruction and Intervention Framework......Page 662
    Participating Schools......Page 663
    Framework for the Data Analysis......Page 664
     Risk Levels for Reading Performance: Outcomes of Universal Screening......Page 666
     Movement Across Tiers......Page 668
     Movement Within Tiers......Page 670
   Implications for Practice and Conclusions......Page 673
   References......Page 675
   The Problem-Solving Model in the Minneapolis Public Schools......Page 676
    Stages of MPS Problem-Solving Model......Page 677
    Office for Civil Rights Voluntary Compliance Agreement......Page 678
    Response to Intervention in the Minneapolis Public Schools......Page 681
    Data Meetings......Page 682
    Implementation of the Model......Page 684
    Target Interventions......Page 685
    Data Review Meeting......Page 686
    Implications for Practice......Page 687
    Integration with General Education......Page 688
   References......Page 689
  Implementing Response to Intervention in a Rural Setting......Page 692
   Previous Research......Page 693
    Grade-Level Teams......Page 694
    Small-Group Intervention......Page 695
    Data......Page 696
    Considerations for Rural Schools......Page 697
   References......Page 699
  School-wide Positive Behavior Support and Response to Intervention: System Similarities, Distincti......Page 701
   Behavioral Challenges in Schools......Page 702
   Features of School-wide Positive Behavior Support......Page 704
   SW-PBS as Early Intervention/Prevention......Page 708
   SW-PBS as Behavioral RTI Within the Special Education Eligibility Process......Page 709
   Implications for Practice......Page 710
   References......Page 712
  Toward a Unified Response-to-Intervention Model: Multi-Tiered Systems of Support......Page 716
    LD Identification......Page 717
   Implementing MTSS......Page 718
    Identify the Problem......Page 719
    Define the Problem......Page 720
    Look at the Effects of the Application......Page 722
   Unified MTSS Model: Problem-Solving......Page 723
    Tier 2......Page 724
   Implications for Behavioral Difficulties......Page 725
    Tier 3......Page 726
   References......Page 727
Index......Page 730