Handbook of Psycholinguistics, Second Edition

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 5
Table of Contents......Page 7
Preface......Page 9
List of Contributors......Page 11
1.1. Philosophical Beginnings......Page 15
1.2. Psychological Beginnings......Page 16
1.3. The Modern Era......Page 19
2. Future Directions......Page 22
2.1. Language Processing and Dialogue......Page 23
2.2. An Enriched Approach to Reading Comprehension......Page 25
2.3. Scope and Interest......Page 27
References......Page 28
Section 1: Language Production......Page 33
2. Properties of Spoken Language Production......Page 35
1. Generating Words......Page 36
1.1.1. Property 1: Word selection precedes sound assembly......Page 37
1.2.1. Property 2: The intention to produce a word activates a family of meaning-related words......Page 39
1.2.2. Property 3: Words that express similar meanings compete for selection......Page 41
1.2.4. Property 5: The speed and accuracy of selection is affected by specific meaning-level properties......Page 43
1.2.5. Property 6: Attended objects do not necessarily lead to lexical activation......Page 44
1.2.7. Property 8: Word production can halt part of the way through the process......Page 46
1.3.1. Property 9: The selection of some words and morphemes is not primarily driven by meaning......Page 48
1.4.2. Property 11: Experience strongly affects speed and accuracy of assembling words......Page 49
1.4.3. Property 12: Aspects of sound assembly proceed sequentially......Page 52
1.4.4. Property 13: The effect of similar sounding words is highly situation-dependent......Page 53
1.5.1. Property 14: Semantic competitors activate their sounds......Page 54
1.5.2. Property 15: The scope of message planning is greater than the scope of sound assembly......Page 55
2. Summary......Page 58
References......Page 60
1. Introduction......Page 75
2.1. Two-Stage Models of Grammatical Encoding......Page 76
2.2. Evidence for Two-Stage Models......Page 78
2.3. Evidence Challenging Two-Stage Models......Page 81
2.4. Do Syntactic Structures Contain Evidence of Constituent Movement?......Page 82
2.5. Are Syntactic Structures Lexically Anchored?......Page 85
3.1. Is Grammatical Encoding Automatic?......Page 86
3.2. Are Some Constructions Difficult to Generate?......Page 88
3.3. Incremental Production......Page 90
4.2. Inclusion of Optional Functional Elements......Page 93
5. Syntax and Prosody in Production......Page 95
6. Conclusions......Page 96
References......Page 98
1. Introduction......Page 107
2. Speech Delay......Page 108
2.1. From Functional Misarticulation to Optimality Theory: A Brief Tour......Page 109
2.2. Consistency and Modifiability of Errors: Does the Theoretical Viewpoint Matter?......Page 114
2.3. Additional Thoughts on OT and Error Variability......Page 118
3. Vot and the Voicing Distinction in Speech Disorders......Page 119
3.1. Psycholinguistics Meets Speech Physiology......Page 122
4. Summary......Page 131
References......Page 132
1. Introduction......Page 139
1.1. Acoustic Noise Effects in Functional MRI......Page 141
1.2. Motion Effects in Functional MRI......Page 143
1.3. Why Require Overt Responses in Language Experiments?......Page 146
1.4. Alternative Techniques for Functional MRI during Speech......Page 148
1.5. Advantages and Disadvantages of Interleaved Acquisition Techniques......Page 150
References......Page 157
Section 2: Language Comprehension......Page 165
1. Introduction......Page 167
2.1. The Inverse Problem......Page 169
2.2. Why Perception Seems Veridical......Page 171
2.3. Information for Perception......Page 172
2.4. Sensory Systems Respond to Change (and little else)......Page 174
3.2. Contrast and Perception of Coarticulated Speech......Page 175
3.3. Broader Spectral and Temporal Effects......Page 181
4.1. Speech Perception Uses Multiple Sources of Information......Page 184
4.2. Perceptual Constancy and Categorization......Page 185
4.3. Categorical Perception......Page 186
4.3.1. Principal components analysis: An analogy......Page 187
4.3.2. “Phonemes” as correlations?......Page 188
4.4. Categorical Perception......Page 189
5.1. Vowels......Page 191
5.2.1. Learning to talk......Page 193
5.3. Second-Language Perception......Page 195
6.1. Lexical Development and the Emergence of Phonemes (or something like them)......Page 197
6.1.1. Note about dyslexia......Page 198
6.2. Finding Word Boundaries......Page 199
7. Speech in the Brain......Page 200
8. Conclusion......Page 202
References......Page 203
7. The Perception of Speech......Page 215
1. Perceptual Organization and Analysis of Speech......Page 216
1.1. Perceptual Organization......Page 217
1.1.3. Keyed to complex patterns of sensory variation......Page 218
1.1.4. Tolerance of anomalous auditory quality......Page 219
1.1.6. Requires attention......Page 221
1.2.1. Intersensory combination......Page 222
1.2.3. A unimodal and multimodal contour......Page 224
1.3. Perceptual Analysis......Page 225
1.3.1. A general auditory account......Page 226
1.3.2. An articulation-based account......Page 229
1.3.3. Perceiving speech linguistically......Page 235
2. Perceptual Identification of the Talker......Page 238
2.1. Talker Identification by Human and Machine......Page 239
2.1.2. Acoustic basis for talker identification......Page 240
2.1.3. Phonetic identification of talkers......Page 243
2.2. Perception of Words and Talkers......Page 244
2.3. Individual Stylistic Variation......Page 246
3. Perceptual Self-Regulation......Page 247
3.2. Phonation......Page 248
3.3. Phonetic Production......Page 249
3.4. Self-Regulation in Conversation......Page 250
Acknowledgments......Page 252
References......Page 253
1. Introduction......Page 263
2. Initial Contact......Page 266
2.1. Initial Contact and Similarity Metrics......Page 268
2.2. Initial Constraints on Activation......Page 270
2.3. Plasticity in Mapping the Speech Signal onto the Lexicon......Page 272
2.4. The Interaction Debate: Is the Interface Bidirectional?......Page 274
3. Selection: How is Activation Regulated and Recognition Achieved?......Page 277
3.1. Frequency......Page 278
3.2. Competition......Page 279
3.3. Word Segmentation in Continuous Speech: Competition Across Word Boundaries......Page 282
4. Integration: When and how is Context Integrated?......Page 285
5. Avenues for Progress......Page 286
Acknowledgments......Page 287
References......Page 288
1.1. The Word......Page 299
1.2. Why the Word?......Page 300
2.1. Features......Page 301
2.2. Letters......Page 303
2.3. Features, Letters, and Word Interactions: Some Initial Models......Page 304
3.1. Specifying the “Rules” of Translation......Page 308
3.2.1. Dual Route Perspective......Page 310
3.2.2. Parallel distributed processing......Page 312
3.2.3. Regularity vs. consistency revisited......Page 315
3.2.5. Feedback consistency......Page 316
3.2.7. Further developments in the PDP architecture......Page 318
3.3.1. Onsets and rimes......Page 320
3.3.2. Syllables......Page 321
3.3.3. Morphemes......Page 323
4.1. Length......Page 325
4.2. Word Frequency......Page 326
4.3. Familiarity......Page 329
4.4. Age of Acquisition......Page 330
4.5. Orthographic Neighborhood Effects......Page 331
5. Semantic Variables for Isolated Words......Page 333
5.2. Meaningfulness......Page 334
5.3. Grounding Semantics in Large-Scale Databases......Page 335
5.4. Additional Semantic Variables that Produce Effects in Isolated Word Recognition Paradigms......Page 336
6.1. Orthographic Priming Effects......Page 337
6.2. Phonological Priming Studies......Page 339
6.3.1. Semantic or associative effects?......Page 341
6.3.2. Mediated priming effects......Page 342
6.3.3. Threshold priming effects......Page 343
6.4. Syntactic Priming......Page 345
6.6.1. Automatic spreading activation......Page 346
6.6.3. Backward-checking accounts......Page 348
6.6.4. Compound-cue model......Page 349
6.7. Summary of Context/Priming Effects......Page 350
7. Attentional Control, Modularity, and time Criterion Models......Page 351
8. Developments of New Approaches and Analytic Tools to Guide the Journey from Features to Meaning......Page 352
8.1. Neuroimaging Techniques......Page 353
8.1.1. Is there convergence across studies?......Page 354
8.1.2. Controversies regarding targeted areas......Page 355
8.1.3. What constraints are afforded by neuroimaging techniques?......Page 357
8.3. RT Distributional Analyses......Page 358
9. Concluding Remarks......Page 359
References......Page 361
1. Lexical Properties......Page 391
1.1. Morphology......Page 392
1.2. Word Familiarity......Page 393
1.3. Word Class......Page 394
1.4. Lexical Ambiguity......Page 395
1.5. Selective Access Re-visited......Page 398
2. Sentence Context Effects......Page 400
2.1. Predictability......Page 401
2.2. Intralexical Priming......Page 402
2.3. Interactive Sentence Context Effects......Page 403
2.4. Properties of the Discourse Representation......Page 405
References......Page 408
1. Introduction......Page 417
2. Quillian’s Semantic Memory......Page 418
2.1.1. Entries and bindings......Page 419
2.2.1. Spreading activation......Page 420
2.2.2. Intersections, paths......Page 421
3. Generic Semantic Memory......Page 422
3.1. Consciousness......Page 423
3.2. Spreading Activation......Page 424
4. Theoretical Extensions, Consequences, and Divergences......Page 425
4.2. The Semantic Priming Effect......Page 426
4.2.2. Methodological implications......Page 427
4.4. Unification......Page 428
4.5. Construction Grammars......Page 429
4.6.2. Features, structural alignment......Page 430
4.7.1. Interactive activation models......Page 431
4.7.2. Distributed representation models......Page 432
5. Semantic Memory and the Brain......Page 433
5.1. Sensory–Functional Theory......Page 435
5.3. The Domain-Specific Hypothesis......Page 437
5.4. Conceptual Structure Theory......Page 438
5.5. Conceptual Topography Theory......Page 440
6.1. Partial Degradation......Page 442
6.2. The Warrington and Shallice Criteria......Page 443
7.1. Key Methods and Findings......Page 444
7.2. How Important are Experimental Tasks?......Page 445
8.1. Controlled versus Automatic Semantic Priming in AD......Page 447
8.2. Recent Hyperpriming Findings......Page 448
8.3. How Generalizable is Hyperpriming?......Page 449
9.1. Relevance of Quillian’s Original Model......Page 450
9.2. Alternate Models......Page 451
9.4. Consciousness......Page 453
9.5. The Role of Cognitive Processes......Page 454
Acknowledgment......Page 455
References......Page 456
12. Syntactic Parsing......Page 469
1. Two-Stage Accounts......Page 470
2. Interactive Accounts......Page 474
3. Frequency Effects......Page 475
4. Effects of Plausibility......Page 480
6. Integration with Context......Page 483
7. Why does Processing Difficulty Occur?......Page 488
8. Reanalysis......Page 489
9. How Difficult is Reanalysis?......Page 490
10. Dealing with Ambiguity in Reanalysis......Page 492
11. Retention of Abandoned Analyses......Page 493
12. Structural Complexity and Memory Load......Page 494
13. Do People Construct Ungrammatical Representations?......Page 497
14. Conclusions......Page 500
References......Page 503
13. Prosody......Page 519
1. A Brief History......Page 520
2. Methodological Challenges......Page 522
3.1. Duration and Fundamental Frequency Measures......Page 524
3.2. Annotation Systems......Page 525
3.3. Recognizing Prosodic Form......Page 526
4. Prosodic Phrasing and Syntactic Processing......Page 527
5. Immediate Integration of Prosodic and Syntactic Structures......Page 528
6. Production Conditions and Prosodic Phrasing......Page 533
7. The Influence of a Prosodic Representation on Syntactic Parsing......Page 536
8. Prominence in Processing and its Interaction with Phrasing......Page 538
9. Pitch Accent Placement......Page 539
10. Interactions of Pitch Accent and Phrasing......Page 541
11. Models of Prosody in Processing......Page 543
12. Conclusions......Page 545
References......Page 546
14. The Syntax–Semantic Interface: On-Line Composition of Sentence Meaning......Page 553
1. Compositionality......Page 555
2.1. Semantic Types and Functional Application......Page 556
2.2. Predicate Modification......Page 558
2.4. Real-Time Processing of Strongly Compositional Expressions......Page 560
2.4.1. Differences among basic operations?......Page 561
2.4.2. Intrinsic processing issues......Page 562
3.1.1. Quantifier interpretation......Page 564
3.1.2. Real-time processing of quantified expressions......Page 566
3.1.3. Type mismatch in conjunctions......Page 568
3.2.1. Complement coercion......Page 569
3.2.2. Coercion as VP insertion......Page 570
3.2.2.1. Evidence in favor of VP insertion......Page 571
3.2.2.2. Evidence against VP-insertion......Page 572
3.2.3.1. Basic findings......Page 574
3.2.3.2. Locus of the effect......Page 577
3.2.4. Aspectual coercion......Page 578
3.2.5. On-line processing of aspectual coercion......Page 580
3.2.6. Neurolinguistic studies of coercion......Page 582
3.3. Towards a Taxonomy of Type-Shifting Rules......Page 583
4. Closing Comments......Page 586
References......Page 587
1. Traditional views of Lexical and Syntactic Ambiguity......Page 595
2.1. Changing Views about Linguistic Structure......Page 597
2.2. Changing Views about Context......Page 598
2.3. Changing Views about Language Statistics......Page 600
2.4. Development of the Connectionist Paradigm......Page 601
3. Probabilistic Constraints and Syntactic Ambiguity Resolution......Page 604
3.1. An Example: Main Verb vs. Reduced Relative Ambiguities......Page 606
3.2. Computational Modeling of Constraint-Based Theory......Page 609
4.1. Statistics All the Way Down?......Page 612
4.2. Which Statistics?......Page 613
4.3. Different Models for Different Phenomena?......Page 614
4.4. Where Do Language Statistics Come From?......Page 615
4.5. Where To Go Next?......Page 616
References......Page 617
1. Introduction......Page 627
2. Basic Facts about Eye Movements in Reading......Page 628
3.1. The Perceptual Span......Page 630
3.2. Integration of Information across Saccades......Page 631
3.3.1. Where to move the eyes......Page 632
3.4. Measures of Processing Time......Page 633
4.1. Word Difficulty......Page 635
4.3. Number of Meanings (Lexical Ambiguity)......Page 637
4.4. Phonological Coding......Page 638
4.6. Morphological Effects......Page 639
4.8. Languages other than English......Page 640
4.9. Summary of Eye Movements and Word Recognition......Page 641
5. Higher-Order Effects on Eye Movements: Parsing and Syntactic Ambiguity......Page 642
6.1. Sentence and Clause Wrap-up......Page 646
6.3. On-line Inferences......Page 647
7. Modeling Eye Movements in Reading......Page 648
7.1. The E–Z Reader Model......Page 649
7.2. Other Models......Page 654
7.3. Models’ Summary......Page 655
References......Page 656
1. Introduction......Page 673
2.1. Neural Activity and the Electroencephalogram......Page 674
2.2. Event-Related Brain Potentials......Page 675
2.3. Magnetoencephalography and Event-Related Magnetic Fields......Page 677
3.2. Scalp-Recorded and MEG Data: Orthographic and Non-orthographic Stimuli......Page 678
4. Semantic Processing and the N400 Component......Page 681
4.1. Neural Bases of the N400......Page 683
4.2.1. Words, pseudowords, nonwords......Page 685
4.2.2. Vocabulary class......Page 686
4.2.4. Concrete versus abstract words......Page 688
4.2.5. Orthographic neighborhood......Page 689
4.3. Using N400 Latency to Track the Timing of Semantic Processing......Page 690
5. Higher-Level Semantics: Sentences and Discourse......Page 692
5.1.1. Quantification and negation......Page 693
5.2. Sentential versus Discourse-Level Context......Page 694
5.3. Language-Intrinsic Semantics versus Real-World Knowledge......Page 695
5.4.1. Word forms versus semantic features (with some remarks on the immediate predictive value of context)......Page 696
5.4.2. Immediacy, incrementality, and prediction......Page 699
5.5.1. Jokes......Page 700
5.5.2. Metaphors......Page 701
6.1. Background......Page 704
6.2.1. Interactions among ERP components......Page 707
6.2.2. Elicitation of unexpected ERP components......Page 711
6.3.1. Relationship of the P600 to the P3b......Page 713
6.3.2. Role of working memory in syntactic processing......Page 714
6.4.1. ELAN......Page 718
6.4.2. Is there more than one P600?......Page 719
6.5. Morphosyntactic Processing: Conclusions......Page 720
References......Page 722
1. Introduction......Page 739
2. Discourse Genres......Page 742
3. Linguistic Cues......Page 744
4. Background Knowledge......Page 746
5. Situation Models......Page 751
6. The Immersed Experiencer......Page 760
References......Page 763
19. Neuroimaging Contributions to the Understanding of Discourse Processes......Page 779
1. The Beginnings of Brain Imaging in Discourse Comprehension......Page 781
2. Specialized Imaging Paradigms for Discourse Processing Research......Page 783
3. New Perspectives on text Integration......Page 786
4. New Perspectives on Inference Processing......Page 790
5. New Perspectives on Figurative Language Processing......Page 793
6. New Perspectives on Lateralization......Page 796
7. A New Component of Discourse Processing: Protagonist Interpreter......Page 799
8.1. Basic LH Sentence Network (Not Uniquely a Part of Discourse Processing)......Page 801
8.4. Left Frontal – Temporal Text Integration Network......Page 802
8.6. Intraparietal Sulcus Spatial Network......Page 803
9. Relation to other Theories......Page 804
10. Concluding Remarks......Page 806
References......Page 807
1. Introduction......Page 815
2. Individual Differences in Word-Level Abilities......Page 816
2.1. Are Comprehension Problems Secondary to Poor Quality Representations?......Page 817
2.2. Are Comprehension Problems Due to Slow Word-Level Processing?......Page 821
3.1. Limitations Due to Capacity Constraints......Page 823
3.1.1. The capacity theory of comprehension......Page 824
3.1.2. Separate-sentence-interpretation-resource (SSIR) theory......Page 825
3.2. Limitations Due to Poor Word-Level Ability and Insufficient Experience......Page 826
3.2.1. The connectionist-based account......Page 827
3.2.2. The long-term working memory (LTWM) Model......Page 829
4. Individual Differences in Suppression Ability......Page 831
5. Individual Differences in Print Exposure......Page 834
6. Individual Differences in Background Knowledge......Page 836
7. Conclusions......Page 838
References......Page 839
21. Figurative Language......Page 849
1. Distinguishing Figurative from Literal Language......Page 851
2. Traditional Theories and Empirical Results......Page 852
3. New Models and Findings......Page 855
4. Indeterminacy of Figurative Meaning and Processing......Page 860
5.1. Participants......Page 863
5.2. Orienting Task......Page 864
5.3. Criterial Task......Page 865
5.4. Materials......Page 867
6. Conclusion......Page 869
References......Page 870
1. Introduction......Page 877
1.1.1. Comprehension......Page 879
2. Methodological Issues......Page 881
2.1.1. Data analysis......Page 882
2.1.2. Formalizing a linking hypothesis......Page 884
2.1.3. Action-contingent analyses......Page 885
2.2. Task Variables......Page 886
2.3.1. Processing load versus representational measures......Page 888
2.3.2. Lexical ambiguity......Page 889
2.3.3. Syntactic ambiguity......Page 890
2.4.1. Spoken word recognition......Page 891
2.4.2. Implicit naming......Page 892
2.4.3. Sensitivity to hidden competitors......Page 893
2.4.4. Sentence processing......Page 894
3.1.1. Spoken word recognition......Page 895
3.1.2. Prosody......Page 896
3.2.1. Syntactic ambiguity resolution......Page 897
3.3. Circumscribing Referential Domains......Page 898
3.3.1. Scalar implicatures......Page 899
3.5. Pronouns and other Referring Expressions......Page 900
3.6. Common Ground, Alignment, and Dialogue......Page 901
3.7. Development of Comprehension Abilities......Page 903
4. Closing Remarks......Page 905
References......Page 906
1.1. Overview and Scope......Page 915
1.2. Establishing Common Ground......Page 917
1.3. Using Common Ground during Language Processing......Page 918
2. Theoretical and Methodological Preliminaries......Page 919
3.1. Determining What to Say......Page 922
3.2.1. Structural disambiguation......Page 924
3.2.2. Prosodic disambiguation......Page 925
3.3. Marking Referent Accessibility......Page 926
3.4. Monitoring and Awareness of Ambiguity......Page 927
4. Current Status of the Design Hypothesis in Language Comprehension......Page 928
4.1. Comprehending Spoken References......Page 929
4.2.1. Difficulty in using common ground......Page 932
4.2.2. When is common ground used?......Page 934
5.1. Abbreviation of Description......Page 935
5.2. Conversational Precedents......Page 937
6.1. Summary of Findings and Evaluation of the Models......Page 940
6.2. Interactive Alignment......Page 942
6.3. Concluding Statement......Page 943
References......Page 944
1. Introduction......Page 953
2. Syntactic Comprehension Disorders: Impairments to Specific Structures and Operations......Page 958
3. Structure-Specific Impairments: Problems and New Data......Page 960
4. Task-Specific Impairments......Page 962
5. Resource Reduction......Page 964
6. On-Line Processing......Page 968
7. Aphasic Syndromes and Neurological Considerations......Page 971
References......Page 975
25. Language Processing in Bilingual Speakers......Page 981
1. Models of the Bilingual Lexicon......Page 983
2.1. The Perception of Speech in Two Languages......Page 987
2.2. Recognizing Words in Two Languages When They Are Read or Spoken......Page 989
2.3.1. Semantic context......Page 993
2.3.2. Sentence context......Page 995
3. Cross-Language Interactions at the Sentence Level......Page 996
3.1. Cross-Language Parsing......Page 997
3.2. Cross-Language Syntactic Priming......Page 999
3.3.1. Understanding code-switched sentences......Page 1000
4. Factors that Influence Bilingual Comprehension......Page 1001
References......Page 1004
26. Psycholinguistics and Neurolinguistic Perspectives of Sign Languages......Page 1015
1. Single Sign Recognition......Page 1016
2. From Signal to Representation......Page 1017
3. Form-Based Structure of the Lexicon......Page 1018
4. Effects of Language Experience......Page 1020
5. Sign Language Production......Page 1021
6. Morphology......Page 1022
7. Syntax......Page 1023
8. Effects of Sign Language Structure on Memory......Page 1024
10.1. Sign Language Production......Page 1027
10.2. Sign Paraphasia......Page 1028
10.3. Sign Language Comprehension......Page 1029
10.4. Cortical Stimulation Mapping......Page 1030
11. Neuroimaging Studies......Page 1031
References......Page 1033
Section 3: Language Development......Page 1039
1. Introduction......Page 1041
2. Nativist Views of Language Development......Page 1042
3.1. New Ways of Understanding Language and Language Use......Page 1044
3.2. Computational Approaches to Language Use and Language Learning......Page 1046
3.4. Social Cognition in Infants and Non-Human Primates......Page 1048
4. Learning about the Sounds of Speech in the First Year......Page 1050
4.1. Early Attention to Speech Sounds......Page 1051
4.2. Becoming a Native Listener......Page 1052
4.3. Finding the Words in Fluent Speech......Page 1053
5.1. First Words......Page 1055
5.2. Individual Differences in Vocabulary Development......Page 1059
5.3. Early Word Learning......Page 1061
6.1. The Development of Efficiency in Language Understanding......Page 1066
6.2. Emerging Awareness of Relations among Words......Page 1068
7. Conclusion......Page 1070
References......Page 1071
1. Introduction......Page 1087
2. Structure Dependence......Page 1089
3.1. A Constraint on Reference......Page 1092
3.2. A Constraint on Contraction......Page 1096
3.3. Maintaining Records of Attested Structures......Page 1098
4. An Unexpected Generalisation......Page 1100
5. Downward Entailment in Child Language......Page 1104
6. An Abstract Structural Property: C-Command......Page 1107
7. Universal Linguistic Principles......Page 1108
8. Hidden Entailments......Page 1110
9. The Continuity Hypothesis......Page 1114
9.1. An Example of Continuity in Syntactic Development......Page 1115
9.2. An Example of Continuity in Semantic Development......Page 1116
References......Page 1119
29. Learning to Read......Page 1125
1. Learning to Read......Page 1126
1.1. Phonology, Morphology, and Orthography......Page 1127
1.2. Phonological Awareness and Learning to Read Words: Reciprocal Developmental Relations......Page 1128
1.3. Oral Language Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension: A Second Case of Developmental Reciprocal Relations......Page 1134
2. Learning to learn to Read......Page 1136
2.1. Preschool Forms of Phonology, Morphology, and Literacy......Page 1137
2.2. Effectiveness of Preschool Intervention......Page 1138
3. Failing to learn to Read......Page 1139
3.1. Popular Misconceptions of Developmental Dyslexia......Page 1140
3.2. Phonological Bases of Dyslexia......Page 1141
3.3. Are there Phonological and Orthographic Forms of Developmental Dyslexia?......Page 1142
4. Conclusions......Page 1144
References......Page 1145
1. SLI: An Overview......Page 1157
2. Why Study SLI?......Page 1159
3. Morphosyntactic Variability as a Phenotype of Language Impairment......Page 1161
5. Proposals of an Extended Optional Period......Page 1164
6.2. Children with SLI in Different Germanic Languages......Page 1168
6.3. Differences in Degree of Use Following Intervention......Page 1169
6.5. Differences when the Adult Grammar Permits Optionality......Page 1170
7. Proposals of Processing Limitations......Page 1171
8. Why Tense/Agreement Morphology?......Page 1175
9.1. Optional Use and Processing Limitations as Independent, Co-Occurring Difficulties......Page 1176
9.2. Processing Limitations Affecting the Degree and Timing of Incremental Influences of Input on Children’s Grammars......Page 1178
References......Page 1179
Subject Index......Page 1187