Handbook of Optics

About the Editors......Page 3
Copyright......Page 5
Contents......Page 8
Contributors......Page 18
Brief Contents of All Volumes......Page 20
Editors' Preface......Page 26
Preface to Volume I......Page 28
Glossary and Fundamental Constants......Page 30
Part 1. Geometrical Optics......Page 36
1.1 Glossary......Page 38
1.2 Introduction......Page 42
1.3 Fundamentals......Page 43
1.4 Characteristic Functions......Page 48
1.5 Rays in Heterogeneous Media......Page 53
1.6 Conservation of Etendue......Page 57
1.8 Refraction and Reflection at Interfaces between Homogeneous Media......Page 58
1.9 Imaging......Page 61
1.10 Description of Systems of Revolution......Page 67
1.11 Tracing Rays in Centered Systems of Spherical Surfaces......Page 70
1.12 Paraxial Optics of Systems of Revolution......Page 72
1.13 Images About Known Rays......Page 78
1.14 Gaussian Lens Properties......Page 79
1.15 Collineation......Page 91
1.16 System Combinations: Gaussian Properties......Page 98
1.17 Paraxial Matrix Methods......Page 100
1.18 Apertures, Pupils, Stops, Fields, and Related Matters......Page 109
1.19 Geometrical Aberrations of Point Images: Description......Page 120
1.20 References......Page 127
Part 2. Physical Optics......Page 136
2.3 Waves and Wavefronts......Page 138
2.4 Interference......Page 140
2.5 Interference by Wavefront Division......Page 149
2.6 Interference by Amplitude Division......Page 154
2.7 Multiple Beam Interference......Page 163
2.8 Coherence and Interference......Page 171
2.10 References......Page 177
3.2 Introduction......Page 180
3.3 Light Waves......Page 181
3.4 Huygens-Fresnel Construction......Page 183
3.5 Cylindrical Wavefront......Page 192
3.6 Mathematical Theory of Diffraction......Page 200
3.7 Stationary Phase Approximation......Page 208
3.8 Vector Diffraction......Page 211
3.10 References......Page 217
4.2 Introduction......Page 218
4.3 Definitions......Page 219
4.4 MTF Calculations......Page 220
4.5 MTF Measurements......Page 223
4.6 References......Page 225
5.2 Introduction......Page 228
5.3 Some Elementary Classical Concepts......Page 229
5.4 Definitions of Coherence Functions......Page 231
5.5 Model Sources......Page 236
5.6 Propagation......Page 240
5.7 Spectrum of Light......Page 246
5.9 Applications......Page 249
5.10 References......Page 250
5.11 Additional Reading......Page 253
6.1 Glossary......Page 254
6.3 Key Definitions and Relationships......Page 255
6.4 Propagation, Diffraction, and Scattering: Enhanced Backscatter and the Lau Effect......Page 258
6.5 Image Formation: Lukosz-Type Super-Resolving System......Page 262
6.6 Efficient Sampling of Coherence Functions......Page 263
6.7 An Example of When Not to Use Coherence Theory......Page 265
6.9 References......Page 266
7.1 Glossary......Page 270
7.2 Introduction......Page 271
7.3 Scattering: An Overview......Page 272
7.4 Scattering by Particles: Basic Concepts and Terminology......Page 273
7.5 Scattering by an Isotropic, Homogeneous Sphere: The Archetype......Page 280
7.6 Scattering by Regular Particles......Page 283
7.7 Computational Methods for Nonspherical Particles......Page 284
7.8 References......Page 286
8.1 Glossary of Principal Symbols......Page 290
8.3 Notation......Page 291
8.4 The Fresnel-Kirchhoff Approximation......Page 294
8.5 The Rayleigh-Rice (RR) or Small-Perturbation Approximation......Page 298
8.7 Surface Statistics......Page 301
8.8 Surface Finish Specification......Page 305
8.9 Retrospect and Prospect......Page 306
8.10 References and Endnotes......Page 307
9.1 Glossary......Page 310
9.2 Introduction......Page 311
9.3 General Theory of Scattering......Page 312
9.4 Single Scattering......Page 313
9.5 Multiple Scattering......Page 317
9.6 References......Page 327
10.1 Glossary......Page 330
10.2 Introductory Comments......Page 331
10.3 Theoretical Preliminaries......Page 332
10.4 Rates of Spectroscopic Transition......Page 333
10.5 Lineshapes of Spectral Transitions......Page 335
10.6 Spectroscopy of One-Electron Atoms......Page 336
10.7 Multielectron Atoms......Page 339
10.8 Optical Spectra and the Outer Electronic Structure......Page 341
10.9 Spectra of Tri-Positive Rare Earth Ions......Page 345
10.10 Vibrational and Rotational Spectra of Molecules......Page 347
10.11 Lineshapes in Solid State Spectroscopy......Page 351
10.12 References......Page 356
11.2 Introduction......Page 358
11.3 Fundamental Analog Operations......Page 359
11.4 Analog Optical Fourier Transforms......Page 360
11.5 Spatial Filtering......Page 362
11.6 Coherent Optical Processing of Synthetic Aperture Radar Data......Page 363
11.7 Coherent Optical Processing of Temporal Signals......Page 365
11.8 Optical Processing of Two-Dimensional Images......Page 369
11.9 Incoherent Processing of Discrete Signals......Page 374
11.11 References......Page 377
Part 3. Polarized Light......Page 380
12.1 Glossary......Page 382
12.2 Basic Concepts and Conventions......Page 383
12.3 Fresnel Equations......Page 385
12.4 Basic Relations for Polarizers......Page 393
12.5 Polarization by Nonnormal-Incidence Reflection (Pile of Plates)......Page 394
12.6 Polarization by Nonnormal-Incidence Transmission (Pile of Plates)......Page 397
12.7 Quarter-Wave Plates and Other Phase Retardation Plates......Page 403
12.8 Matrix Methods for Computing Polarization......Page 406
12.9 References......Page 409
13.1 Glossary......Page 412
13.2 Prism Polarizers......Page 413
13.3 Glan-Type Prisms......Page 419
13.4 Nicol-Type Prisms......Page 426
13.5 Polarizing Beam-Splitter Prisms......Page 429
13.6 Feussner Prisms......Page 433
13.7 Noncalcite Polarizing Prisms......Page 434
13.8 Dichroic and Diffraction-Type Polarizers......Page 435
13.9 Non-Normal-Incidence Reflection and Transmission Polarizers......Page 444
13.10 Retardation Plates......Page 454
13.11 Variable Retardation Plates and Compensators......Page 464
13.12 Half-Shade Devices......Page 467
13.13 Miniature Polarization Devices......Page 468
13.14 References......Page 469
14.1 Glossary......Page 478
14.3 Objectives......Page 480
3	14.5 The Stokes Parameters and the Poincare Sphere	480......Page 481
14.6 Mueller Matrices......Page 483
14.8 Polarization Elements' Properties in the Mueller Calculus......Page 484
14.11 Mueller Matrices of Ideal Polarizers......Page 485
14.12 Retarder Mueller Matrices......Page 488
14.13 Retarder Mueller Matrices Ambiguities and Retarder Space......Page 491
14.14 Transmittance and Diattenuation......Page 493
14.16 Mueller Matrices of Diattenuators......Page 495
14.18 Coordinate System for the Mueller Matrix......Page 496
14.19 Mueller Matrices for Refraction......Page 497
14.20 Mueller Matrices for Reflection......Page 498
14.21 Conversion between Mueller Matrices and Jones Matrices......Page 499
14.22 Nondepolarizing Mueller Matrices and Mueller-Jones Matrices......Page 501
14.23 Homogeneous and Inhomogeneous Polarization Elements......Page 502
14.24 Mueller Matrices Near the Identity Matrix, Weak Polarization Elements......Page 503
14.25 Matrix Roots of Nondepolarizing Mueller Matrices......Page 504
14.26 Depolarization and the Depolarization Index......Page 507
14.27 Degree of Polarization Surfaces and Maps......Page 508
14.29 The Average Degree of Polarization......Page 509
14.31 Generators for Depolarization......Page 510
14.32 Interpretation of Arbitrary Mueller Matrices, the Polar Decomposition of Mueller Matrices......Page 516
14.33 Physically Realizable Mueller Matrices......Page 517
14.34 Acknowledgments......Page 519
14.35 References......Page 520
15.1 Glossary......Page 522
15.4 Light-Measuring Polarimeters......Page 524
15.7 Polarization Generators and Analyzers......Page 525
15.12 Division of Amplitude......Page 526
15.15 Definitions......Page 527
15.16 Stokes Vectors and Mueller Matrices......Page 529
15.18 Polarization Properties of Light Beams......Page 530
15.20 Data Reduction for Light-Measuring Polarimeters......Page 532
15.21 Sample-Measuring Polarimeters for Measuring Mueller Matrix Elements......Page 534
15.22 Polarimetric Measurement Equation and Polarimetric Data-Reduction Equation......Page 535
15.24 Incomplete Sample-Measuring Polarimeters......Page 537
15.26 Elliptical and Circular Polarizers and Analyzers......Page 538
15.27 Common Defects of Polarization Elements......Page 540
15.29 Rotating Retarders......Page 541
15.31 Liquid Crystal Retarders......Page 542
15.33 Magneto-Optical Modulators......Page 544
15.35 Polarimeter Design Metrics......Page 545
15.36 Singular Value Decomposition Examples......Page 547
15.37 Polarimeter Error Analysis......Page 548
15.39 Retro-Reflection Testing and Correction for Supplemental Optics......Page 549
15.40 Applications of Polarimetry......Page 550
15.41 Ellipsometry and Generalized Ellipsometry......Page 551
15.42 Liquid Crystal Cell and System Testing......Page 553
15.43 Polarization Aberrations......Page 556
15.44 Remote Sensing......Page 558
15.45 Polarization Light Scattering......Page 559
15.46 Ophthalmic Polarimetry......Page 560
15.48 References......Page 562
16.1 Glossary......Page 568
16.2 Introduction......Page 569
16.3 Conventions......Page 570
16.4 Modeling and Inversion......Page 571
16.6 Instrumentation......Page 577
16.8 Mueller-Matrix Generalized Ellipsometry......Page 586
16.21 References......Page 588
Part 4. Components......Page 594
17.1 Glossary......Page 596
17.2 Introduction......Page 597
17.3 Basics......Page 598
17.4 Stops and Pupils......Page 601
17.6 Magnifier or Eye Loupe......Page 602
17.9 Aplanatic Surfaces and Immersion Lenses......Page 603
17.10 Single Element Lens......Page 605
17.11 Landscape Lenses and the Influence of Stop Position......Page 610
17.12 Two-Lens Systems......Page 613
17.13 Achromatic Doublets......Page 615
17.15 Symmetrical Lenses......Page 619
17.16 Double-Gauss Lenses......Page 620
17.17 Petzval Lenses......Page 621
17.20 Performance of Representative Lenses......Page 622
17.21 Rapid Estimation of Lens Performance......Page 629
17.22 Bibliography......Page 633
18.1 Glossary......Page 634
18.3 Gaussian Analysis of Afocal Lenses......Page 635
18.4 Keplerian Afocal Lenses......Page 640
18.5 Galilean and Inverse Galilean Afocal Lenses......Page 648
18.6 Relay Trains and Periscopes......Page 650
18.7 Reflecting and Catadioptric Afocal Lenses......Page 652
18.8 References......Page 656
19.2 Introduction......Page 658
19.6 Prism Descriptions......Page 659
19.7 References......Page 686
20.2 Introduction......Page 688
20.3 Prisms......Page 689
20.4 Gratings......Page 690
20.5 Prism and Grating Configurations and Instruments......Page 691
20.6 References......Page 702
21.1 Glossary......Page 704
21.2 Introduction......Page 705
21.3 Device Physics......Page 706
21.4 Integrated Optics Materials and Fabrication Technology......Page 716
21.5 Circuit Elements......Page 724
21.6 Applications of Integrated Optics......Page 734
21.7 Future Trends......Page 742
21.8 References......Page 744
22.1 Glossary......Page 750
22.4 Micro-Optics Design Considerations......Page 751
22.5 Molded Microlenses......Page 757
22.6 Diamond Turning......Page 764
22.7 Lithography for Making Refractive Components......Page 767
22.8 Monolithic Lenslet Modules......Page 774
22.9 Distributed-Index Planar Microlenses......Page 775
22.10 Micro-Fresnel Lenses......Page 780
22.11 Liquid Lenses......Page 786
22.12 Other Technologies......Page 791
22.13 References......Page 796
23.1 Glossary......Page 800
23.3 Design--Geometrical Optics......Page 801
23.4 Design--Scalar Diffraction Theory......Page 809
23.5 Design--Vector Diffraction Theory......Page 812
23.6 Fabrication......Page 813
23.7 References......Page 816
24.2 Introduction......Page 818
24.4 Mathematical Representation......Page 819
24.5 Axial Gradient Lenses......Page 820
24.6 Radial Gradients......Page 822
24.8 Shallow Radial Gradients......Page 824
24.9 Materials......Page 825
24.10 References......Page 826
Part 5. Instruments......Page 828
25.2 Introduction......Page 830
25.3 Background......Page 831
25.6 Resolving Fine Detail......Page 832
25.8 Display......Page 833
25.10 Video Cameras......Page 834
25.13 Time Lag......Page 835
25.14 Automation......Page 837
25.16 Flexibility through Features and Accessories......Page 843
25.17 Advantages of Various Formats......Page 844
25.18 Large Format: A Different World......Page 845
25.19 Special Cameras......Page 847
25.20 Further Reading......Page 853
26.1 Glossary......Page 854
26.2 Introduction......Page 855
26.4 Charge-Coupled Device Array Architecture......Page 856
26.5 Charge Injection Device......Page 859
26.6 Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor......Page 861
26.7 Array Performance......Page 862
26.8 Camera Performance......Page 865
26.9 Modulation Transfer Function......Page 867
26.10 Resolution......Page 868
26.11 Sampling......Page 869
26.12 Storage, Analysis, and Display......Page 872
26.13 References......Page 873
27.2 Imposed Design Limitations......Page 876
27.3 Modern Lens Types......Page 877
27.4 Classification System......Page 892
27.5 Lens Performance Data......Page 899
27.7 Further Reading......Page 900
28.2 Introduction......Page 902
28.3 Optical Arrangements, Lenses, and Resolution......Page 904
28.4 Contrast and Imaging Modes......Page 925
28.5 Manipulation of Specimen......Page 955
28.6 Acknowledgment......Page 956
28.7 References......Page 957
29.1 Glossary......Page 964
29.4 Introduction to Catadioptric and Reflective Objectives......Page 965
29.5 Field-of-View Plots......Page 997
29.6 Definitions......Page 999
29.7 References......Page 1001
30.1 Glossary......Page 1006
30.2 Introduction......Page 1007
30.3 Scanned Resolution......Page 1011
30.4 Scanners for Remote Sensing......Page 1019
30.5 Scanning for Input/Output Imaging......Page 1030
30.6 Scanner Devices and Techniques......Page 1039
30.7 Scan-Error Reduction......Page 1053
30.8 Agile Beam Steering......Page 1056
30.9 References......Page 1069
30.10 Further Reading......Page 1073
31.1 Glossary......Page 1074
31.3 Optical Absorption Spectrometers......Page 1075
31.4 Luminescence Spectrometers......Page 1078
31.5 Photoluminescence Decay Time......Page 1085
31.6 Polarization Spectrometers......Page 1088
31.7 High-Resolution Techniques......Page 1096
31.8 Light Scattering......Page 1103
31.9 References......Page 1104
32.1 Glossary......Page 1106
32.3 Basic Types of Interferometers......Page 1107
32.4 Three-Beam and Double-Passed Two-Beam Interferometers......Page 1112
32.5 Fringe-Counting Interferometers......Page 1113
32.7 Frequency-Modulation Interferometers......Page 1114
32.9 Phase-Shifting Interferometers......Page 1115
32.10 Phase-Locked Interferometers......Page 1116
32.11 Laser-Doppler Interferometers......Page 1117
32.12 Laser-Feedback Interferometers......Page 1118
32.13 Fiber Interferometers......Page 1119
32.14 Interferometeric Wave Meters......Page 1121
32.15 Second-Harmonic and Phase-Conjugate Interferometers......Page 1122
32.16 Stellar Interferometers......Page 1124
32.17 Gravitational-Wave Interferometers......Page 1126
32.18 References......Page 1127
33.1 Glossary......Page 1130
33.3 Background and Basic Principles......Page 1131
33.4 Holographic Interferometry......Page 1133
33.5 Holographic Optical Elements......Page 1142
33.6 Holographic Inspection......Page 1145
33.7 Holographic Lithography......Page 1151
33.8 Holographic Memory......Page 1153
33.10 References......Page 1154
34.2 Creation of the Latent Image......Page 1160
34.3 Development......Page 1164
34.6 Cleaning and Erasing......Page 1169
34.8 Color......Page 1170
34.9 References......Page 1172
35.1 Introduction......Page 1174
35.2 Preliminaries and Basic Definitions......Page 1175
35.3 The Optical Path......Page 1180
35.4 Automatic Focusing......Page 1185
35.5 Automatic Tracking......Page 1187
35.6 Thermomagnetic Recording Process......Page 1190
35.7 Magneto-Optical Readout......Page 1194
35.8 Materials of Magneto-Optical Recording......Page 1198
35.9 Concluding Remarks......Page 1201
35.10 Further Information......Page 1203
35.11 Bibliography......Page 1204
Index......Page 1206
Color Plates......Page 1248