Handbook of Nuclear Chemistry, 2nd Edition

ISBN 9781441907196......Page 1
1 Nuclear and Radiochemistry: the First 100 Years......Page 4
1.1 The Pioneering Years......Page 5
1.2 The Growth Spurt of the 1930s......Page 9
1.2.1 Nuclear Reactions......Page 10
1.2.2 Nuclear Properties......Page 11
1.2.3 New Elements......Page 14
1.2.4 Hot-Atom Chemistry and Tracer Applications......Page 15
1.2.5 Geo- and Cosmochronology......Page 16
1.3 World War II......Page 17
1.4 The Golden Era......Page 19
1.4.1 Nuclear Reactions......Page 20
1.4.2 Nuclear Properties......Page 21
1.4.3 New Elements......Page 23
1.4.4 Hot-Atom Chemistry and Tracer Applications......Page 26
1.4.5 Geo- and Cosmochronology......Page 28
1.5 Current Trends......Page 30
References......Page 32
63 Nuclear Safeguards Verification Measurement Techniques......Page 40
54.2.1 Principle and Components of AMS......Page 616
51.3.1 Rayleigh Separation......Page 1269
49.3.2 Solid Systems......Page 45
2.1.2.2 Phenomenological Nucleon-Nucleon Potentials......Page 47
2.1.2.3 Nucleon-Nucleon Potentials from Meson Field Theories......Page 50
53.2 Equipment and Techniques......Page 2077
51.3.3 The Ideal Cascade......Page 2375
52.1.4 Ion-Exchange Theory......Page 2409
2.2.2.2 Electric Moments......Page 54
2.2.2.3 Magnetic Moments......Page 56
2.2.2.4 Experimental Nuclear Moments......Page 57
38.3.2 Neutron Transmission and Activation Rates......Page 58
Charge Radii......Page 59
Mass Radii......Page 60
2.2.3.2 Parity......Page 61
2.2.4 Chart of the Nuclides......Page 62
58.3 Future: A More Radical Picture......Page 2433
54.3.4 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS)......Page 2497
2.3.1.1 Closed Shells in Atomic Nuclei......Page 64
2.3.1.2 Independent-Particle Shell Model......Page 65
2.3.1.3 Shell Model with Multiparticle Configurations......Page 70
2.3.1.4 Shell Model of Deformed Nuclei......Page 71
2.3.1.5 Calculation of the Total Energy of Nuclei......Page 74
15.9.2 Isotope Fractionation in Biological Processes......Page 76
Basic Formulae......Page 78
Selection Rules......Page 80
Single-Particle Transition Rates......Page 81
2.3.2.3 Experimental γ-Ray Transition Rates: Isomeric States......Page 82
62.3.2 Granddaughters and the Detection of Spoofing......Page 85
Even-Even Nuclei......Page 86
Odd-A and Odd-Odd nuclei......Page 89
58.3.3 Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems......Page 521
2.3.4.1 Basic Experimental Facts......Page 90
Properties of Rotational States......Page 92
Structural Changes Induced by Rotation......Page 93
Rotation of Even-Even Nuclei......Page 94
Rotation of Odd-A Nuclei. Particle-Rotor Model......Page 97
Rotation of Superdeformed and Hyperdeformed Nuclei......Page 100
2.3.5 Interacting Boson Models......Page 102
2.3.6 Clustering......Page 108
2.3.7.1 Effective Interactions......Page 110
2.3.7.2 Few Nucleon Systems, Ab Initio Calculations......Page 111
41.4 Examples of 11C-Labeled Compounds......Page 113
2.4.1.2 One-Body Theory of α Decay......Page 118
2.4.1.3 Microscopic Theories of α Decay......Page 120
Spherical Nuclei......Page 121
Deformed Nuclei......Page 123
2.4.2.1 Basic Experimental Facts......Page 124
2.4.2.2 Theory of β Decay......Page 128
2.4.2.3 Types of the Weak Interaction......Page 135
2.4.2.5 Parity Nonconservation in β Decay......Page 136
2.4.3 Special Decay Modes......Page 137
20.6 Element 105 (Dubnium)......Page 138
13 Natural Radioactive Decay Chains......Page 144
8.2.1 The Bethe-Bloch Equation......Page 366
39.2.1 Types of Cyclotrons......Page 150
35.1.2 Non-Isotopic Tracers......Page 151
38.2.3 Energy Considerations in Nuclear Reactions......Page 1861
36.3.2 Recommended Dosimetry Reactions......Page 1845
52.1.5 Equipment......Page 157
39.2.6 Yield and Purity......Page 1527
42.5.3 Enzymatic Reactions......Page 2061
9.3 Sums and Products, Error Propagation......Page 162
55.6.2 Categorization of Radiological Emergencies for Planning Intervention......Page 165
41.5.1 General Considerations......Page 170
62.4.4.5 X-Ray Microanalysis......Page 2225
33.2.6 Microbeam......Page 174
3.4.2.1 Nucleon Elastic Scattering......Page 178
3.4.2.2 Heavy-Ion Elastic Scattering......Page 180
30.5.3 Application of RNAA in Materials Science......Page 181
25.3.3 Spectrum Evaluation......Page 1425
62.4.6.1 General and Applications......Page 2870
18.1.1.3 Americium (Am) and Curium (Cm)......Page 188
41.2.3.2 Isotopic Dilution - Labeling Synthesis......Page 1982
57.3.6.2 The Supercritical State......Page 190
62.4.3.3 Tritium Analysis......Page 2861
23.5 G-Value, Absorbed Dose......Page 698
3.5.1 Preliminaries......Page 193
3.5.2 The Hauser-Feshbach Treatment of Particle Emission......Page 194
3.5.3 The Transition-State Treatment of CN Decay......Page 195
3.5.4 The Density of States of Highly Excited Nuclei......Page 196
3.5.5 Thermodynamic Models for Multifragmentation......Page 197
24.6 Hot Atom Reaction in Solid Phase......Page 199
3.6.1 Reactions Near the Fermi Energy......Page 202
3.6.2 Models of Collision Dynamics......Page 203
3.6.3 Participant-Spectator Reactions......Page 205
3.6.4 Relativistic Heavy-Ion Collisions: Dense Nuclear Matter......Page 206
3.7.1 Background and Connection to Classical Thermodynamics......Page 208
3.7.2 The Perspective from Energy-Density-Functional Theory......Page 210
3.7.3 The Incompressibility from the Physical LDM-Like Expansion......Page 211
3.7.4 Cluster Formation at Very Low Density......Page 213
3.7.5 Multifragmentation: The Low-Density Regime and the Manifestation of the Liquid-Gas Phase Transition in Nuclear Collisi......Page 214
3.8 Addendum: Cross-Section Calculations......Page 217
3.9 Selected Nuclear Reaction Web Resources......Page 219
References......Page 220
4 Nuclear Fission......Page 224
53.1 Introduction......Page 1463
47.2 Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Biological Substances on Molecular, Cellular, and Tissue Levels......Page 1468
56.1.1 X- and Gamma-Ray Sources......Page 1799
12.2.2 Origin of the Matter-AntimatterMatter-antimatter asymmetry Asymmetry......Page 227
7.4.1 General Kinetics of Decay Chains......Page 343
16.1.4 Working Standards (PDB, SMOW, SNOW, SLAP)......Page 732
55.5.1 Exposure to Natural Sources......Page 2527
4.2.6 Missed Opportunities......Page 232
41.3 Methods for 11C-Syntheses......Page 693
4.3.1 The Liquid Drop Model (LDM)......Page 233
60.5.7 Other PWI Processes......Page 2788
42.5.4 Electrochemical Cells......Page 235
59.2.1.1 Thermoelectric Nuclear Power Systems......Page 237
31.4.5 Neutron Shutter, Beam Tube, Sample Holder, and Beam Stop......Page 1634
4.3.5 The Shell Model......Page 240
4.3.6 The Combination of the Liquid Drop Model and the Shell Model According to Strutinsky......Page 243
57.4 Specific Nuclear Reactors and Other Nuclear Devices......Page 245
5.5.2.2 The Innermost Barrier of Uranium Isotopes......Page 246
55.3.1.3 Fish......Page 2511
4.4.3 Nuclear Charge Distribution......Page 263
12.2.1.4 Dark Energy, the Accelerating Universe, and the Problem of Distance Measurements......Page 622
58.2.3.1 Self-Consistent Nuclear Energy System (SCNES)......Page 267
8.3.6.2 Transition Radiation......Page 384
4.4.4 Ternary Fission......Page 271
33.3.3 Instrumentation......Page 273
29.3.1.2 Single-Crystal Neutron Diffraction, ``Ab Initio´´ Structure Determination......Page 1528
4.4.5.3 Level Densities in the Isomers......Page 277
39.5 Production of Therapeutic Radionuclides......Page 278
56 Appendix - Reference Data to Part V......Page 1034
11.1.1 The SI Units of Measurement......Page 335
5.2.1 The Liquid Drop Model (LDM)......Page 284
54.2.2 Protocols of Sample Preparation and Measurements......Page 285
62.3 Radionuclide Chronometry......Page 289
62.4.4.3 Transmission Electron Microscopy......Page 2198
40.2.2 Generators with Potential Medical Application......Page 291
55.4 Environmental Transport of Radioactive Effluents; Routine and Accidental Releases......Page 292
43.3.3 Agents for Renal Function......Page 718
28.4.2 Coulomb Capture Ratios......Page 1496
62.5 Special Nuclear Materials......Page 2872
42.3.1.3 Electrophilic [18F]F2 from n.c.a. [18F]F-......Page 379
35.4.2 Gamma-Ray Measurements......Page 301
5.5.2.1 The Depth of the Third Minimum in 236U......Page 304
5.5.3 Hyperdeformed Rotational Bands in 234U......Page 306
63.3.3.2 Low-Resolution Gamma Spectroscopy (LRGS)......Page 2911
5.5.4 Subbarrier Fission Resonances and Transitional States Observed in 232U......Page 312
5.6 The Fission-Barrier Landscape......Page 316
References......Page 363
48.8 Editors´ Notes......Page 318
49 Dosimetry Methods......Page 320
61.1 Radioactive Wastes......Page 321
6.2 Basics of Nuclear Physics......Page 322
57.3  General Principles of Reactor Design......Page 2123
24.4 Hot Atom Reactions in Gaseous Phase......Page 463
55.5 Sources of the Effective Dose to the Population in the Environment......Page 1013
References......Page 2064
30.7 Location Sensitive Analysis......Page 333
46 Radionuclide Therapy......Page 334
55.3.2 Terrestrial Environment......Page 1464
58.2 Future: The Extrapolation of Past and Present......Page 1860
33.4 Editors´ Note......Page 1732
51.3.4 Equilibrium Time......Page 347
13.3.1 Approach to Equilibrium......Page 676
7.5 Decay Constant (Half-Life) Systematics......Page 354
51.4.2 Thermal Diffusion......Page 2379
9.3.2 The Central Limit Theorem\r......Page 357
7.5.3 Gamma Decay\r......Page 360
57.3.7 Critical Size......Page 362
60.6 Prospects of Practical Application......Page 2790
8 Interaction of Radiation with Matter......Page 364
48.2 General Properties of Detectors......Page 2261
25.1.2 Thermal Broadening: γ Emission and Absorption in Gases......Page 371
42.3.1 Electrophilic 18F-Fluorination......Page 373
8.2.4 Fluctuations in the energy loss......Page 374
58.2.5 High Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor (HTGR)......Page 375
13.3.2 Branching Decay......Page 677
60.3 Basic Schemes of Magnetic Confinement......Page 2766
8.3.1 Energy Loss of Electrons by Ionization......Page 377
27.1.3.1 Thermalization of Positrons......Page 1465
12.2.1.2 Inflationary Interpretation of the CMBR......Page 619
8.3.2.4 Radiation Length......Page 380
62.3.3 Detection of Incomplete Fuel Reprocessing......Page 381
8.3.5 Absorption of β Radiation......Page 382
33.1.4.2 Deducing Concentrations......Page 383
17.4 Cosmogenic Radionuclides......Page 414
44.6.2 Radioiododehalogenation......Page 747
52.3.3 Uranium Isotope Enrichment......Page 2422
8.4.3 Photoelectric Effect......Page 388
30.5.5 Application of RNAA for the Determination of Radionuclides......Page 788
43.6.4 Vitamins: Folate, Biotin, and B12......Page 2110
8.4.6 Photon Attenuation......Page 390
60.5 Plasma-Wall Interaction in Nuclear Fusion Devices......Page 909
8.5.2 Auger Effect......Page 391
References......Page 1931
55.1 Introduction......Page 398
57.2.2 First Attempts to Build Artificial Reactors......Page 2620
46.3.1 Beta-Particle-Emitting Radionuclides......Page 674
60.5.3 Chemical Erosion......Page 2782
24.6.1 Appearance Energy......Page 408
9.3.3 Convolution and Deconvolution......Page 410
23.5.4 Pulse Dosimetry......Page 984
9.4.2 Binomial Distribution\r: B(n, p)......Page 415
58.2.2.1 Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy......Page 1308
25.3.2 Pattern Analysis......Page 1423
9.4.3.1 Properties......Page 419
9.4.4 Exponential DistributionDistribution : gamma (1, \rlamda )......Page 421
61.1.1.4 High-Level Waste (HLW)......Page 2800
9.4.4.2 Exponential Law in a Binomial Way\r......Page 425
9.4.4.3 The Poisson Connection......Page 427
61.5.5 Transmutation Devices for the Advanced Fuel Cycle......Page 431
31.6.3.1 Energy Resolution......Page 432
9.4.6 Normal Distribution : N(mu , sigma\r2)......Page 433
9.4.6.1 Properties......Page 436
9.4.7 The chi2 Distribution : chi2(k)......Page 437
9.4.7.1 Properties......Page 438
62.5.3 Nuclear Reactors and the Production of Plutonium and 233U......Page 2877
50.1.6.1 Radioactive-Ion Sources......Page 2334
44.5 Rating of Radioiodination Methods......Page 2136
9.5.1 Renewal Processes\r......Page 443
62.4.4.4 Electron Microprobe Analysis......Page 444
Indoors......Page 2530
9.5.1.3 The ``Primeval´´ Shape of the Photoelectric Peak\r......Page 446
  9.5.1.4 Statistical Effects Smearing the Photoelectric Peak\r......Page 447
23.10.1 DNA and Its Constituents......Page 1311
9.5.2.1 Branching Processes\r......Page 448
9.6 Fitting Nuclear Spectra\r......Page 449
62.6.1 Overview......Page 2884
9.6.2 The Maximum Likelihood Principle\r......Page 450
17.19.1 Fictitious Isochrons in the Rift Valley......Page 451
9.6.4 Weighted Least Squares Method in Nuclear Spectroscopy\r......Page 452
20.7 Element 106 (Seaborgium)......Page 970
References......Page 455
References......Page 456
29 Neutron Scattering Methods in Chemistry......Page 458
51.1 Introduction......Page 2371
18.2.1 Actinide Concept......Page 847
45.3 Examples of Radiometal-Chelate-Biomolecule Conjugates......Page 2165
16.7 Quantifying Isotopic Chronostratigraphy......Page 467
59.2.2 Nuclear Power Propulsions......Page 470
References......Page 471
References......Page 474
14 RadioelementsRadioelements......Page 690
11.1 The International System of Units (SI)......Page 477
46.2.1.1 Geometrical Considerations......Page 478
58.2.2 Requirements on the Advanced Nuclear Energy System......Page 479
11.2 Fundamental Physical Constants......Page 482
50.1.4 Production of Ions from NonGaseous Materials......Page 2329
12.3 Primordial NucleosynthesisNUCLEOSYNTHESIS......Page 488
11.4 Atomic Data......Page 505
25.2.2 Quadrupole Splitting......Page 1408
57.3.6 Reactor Kinetics......Page 511
18.2.5 XAFS: New Methodology for Chemical Studies of Transuranium Elements......Page 516
39.6 Conclusions and Perspectives......Page 541
References......Page 610
12 Origin of the Chemical Elements......Page 614
12.2.1.1 Observations of CMBR......Page 617
58.2.2.3 Effective Utilization of Resources and Environmental Preservation......Page 2670
43.3 Commercial 99mTc-Radiopharmaceuticals......Page 1626
13.1.4 4n + 1 Chain......Page 629
12.3.1 Weak DecouplingWeak decoupling......Page 630
60.5.5 Redeposition and Co-Deposition......Page 2785
40.3.1 Overview......Page 635
54.2.1.5 Ion Detector......Page 638
49.4.1.1 Principles of Calorimetry......Page 2308
12.4.1.3 SupernovaSupernova explosions Explosions......Page 640
12.4.1.4 Core-Collapse SupernovaeSupernovatype II......Page 641
12.4.2 Hydrogen BurningHydrogen burning: Proton-Proton ChainProton-proton chain, CNO-CycleCNO cycle......Page 642
38.3.7 General Equations Governing the Reactor Production of Radionuclides......Page 1878
61.4.3 Direct Disposal of High-Level Waste......Page 1576
12.4.5 NucleosynthesisNucleosynthesisof heavy elements Beyond Fe......Page 649
49.4.1.4 Dosimetry at Low-Energy Electron Irradiation......Page 2312
29.4.1.1 Description of the Liquid StructureLiquid structure, Based on Experimentally Available Quantities......Page 652
45.5 Outlook......Page 653
16.8.2 The Eocene Ocean......Page 752
12.5.4 X-ray BurstsX-ray burst and the rp-Processrp-process......Page 656
63.3.4.1 Neutron Detectors......Page 2915
35.6.2 Production of Radioactive Multitracers......Page 1773
12.6.1 Experiments and Observations......Page 658
12.6.3 Meteoritic Inclusions......Page 660
12.6.4 Galactical Chemical EvolutionChemical evolutionof a galaxy: Putting it all Together......Page 662
48.7 Composite Detectors......Page 776
59.1 Introduction......Page 669
45.2.1 Role of the Chelator in the Design of Radiopharmaceuticals......Page 672
33.2.1 Theoretical Background......Page 1712
34.3 Id18f: A Dedicated X-Ray Microprobe End-Station......Page 703
62.2.4 Reagent Blanks......Page 2851
39.3.2 Non-Standard Positron Emitters......Page 1919
References......Page 679
58.3.2 Fast Reactors with a Closed Fuel Cycle as a Basis of Large-Scale Nuclear Power......Page 2704
13.4.2 Gamma Rays......Page 680
51.5.2 Dual Temperature Exchange: The GS Process......Page 987
43.5 Strategies for the Labeling of Targeting Molecules......Page 687
17.6 Fission Track Dating......Page 775
62.1.1 Nuclear Smuggling......Page 2760
28.4 Theory of Exotic Atoms......Page 695
Acknowledgment......Page 699
15 Isotope Effects......Page 700
39.1 Introduction......Page 1904
34.2 Synchrotron Micro- and Nanoscopic X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis......Page 702
61.4 The ``Back-End´´ of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle......Page 705
41.2.2 Synthetic Considerations......Page 707
15.5.1 Vapor Pressure Isotope Effects......Page 709
15.5.2 Isotope Effects on Other Phase Equilibria......Page 712
References......Page 714
53.7 Conclusion......Page 2454
15.8 Mass-Independent Isotope Effects......Page 720
References......Page 721
27.3.1 Construction of Positron Sources......Page 722
References......Page 724
37 Introduction to the Fourth Volume......Page 1620
46.1 Introduction......Page 2180
48.3.1 Ionization Chambers......Page 2262
16.1.2 First Carbonate/Water Paleotemperature Scale......Page 731
41.2 Radiotracer Synthesis......Page 733
16.2.1 Basic Considerations......Page 735
16.2.2 Dole Effect and the Meteoric Water Line......Page 736
50.3 RF-Based and AC-Voltage Accelerators......Page 738
52.2.4 Studies of Plutonium Speciation......Page 2004
48.4 Semiconductors......Page 2170
16.4.2 Carbon Cycle Changes......Page 743
55.6 Measures in Nuclear Emergency......Page 745
16.6.3 Pleistocene/Holocene Climatic Changes......Page 748
16.8 Time´s Arrow Reversed: Pliocene Paleoclimates......Page 751
51.6.2 Isotope Separation by Redox Ion-Exchange Chromatography......Page 754
16.8.5 Isotopes as Mesozoic Climate Indicators......Page 755
30.6.3 Validation......Page 756
25.4.5 Emission Mössbauer Spectroscopy......Page 1434
16.8.8 The Precambrian Eons......Page 758
16.8.8.1 Archean/Proterozoic Transition......Page 759
References......Page 760
59 Nuclear Power Sources for Space Systems......Page 2403
42.1 Introduction......Page 1035
17.2 Argon/Argon......Page 766
17.2.1 Incremental Heating......Page 767
30.2.2 Activation Equation......Page 1560
34.6.2 X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy: XANES and EXAFS......Page 1756
44.3.5 Direct Radioiodination......Page 2128
47.4.2 Internal Pathways......Page 2228
38.3.4 Neutron Energy Dependence of Cross Sections......Page 1875
38.3.5 Reaction Rates in Thermal Reactors......Page 1766
31.4.4 Neutron Absorbers and Shielding Materials......Page 1633
63.5 Environmental Sampling and Analysis to Verify the Completeness of State Declarations......Page 774
31.8.1 Absolute Approach......Page 1654
17.9 Lutetium/Hafnium......Page 777
17.12 Osmium/Osmium......Page 778
17.13 Pleochroic Haloes......Page 779
17.14 Polonium/Lead......Page 780
17.15 Potassium/Argon......Page 782
17.16 Potassium/Calcium......Page 784
17.17 Radiocarbon (Carbon-14)......Page 785
31.5.1 Sample Size and Shape......Page 786
17.17.3 Radiocarbon in Dead Animals and Plants......Page 787
31.6.3 Calibration Procedures......Page 1643
17.17.8 Dendrochronology and Radiocarbon......Page 789
17.17.9 Radiocarbon and Dating Groundwaters......Page 790
17.18 Rhenium/Osmium......Page 791
17.19 Rubidium/Strontium......Page 792
17.19.3 Some Caveats......Page 795
17.20 Samarium/Neodymium......Page 796
17.21 Thermoluminescence (TL)......Page 797
17.22 Tritium......Page 798
17.22.1 Dating Using Tritium and Tritogenic 3He......Page 799
17.22.2 A Danubian Application of the Tritium/3He Dating Method......Page 800
17.23.1 Ionium (230Th)......Page 801
17.23.3 Lead-210......Page 802
17.23.4 Snow, Ice, and Volcanoes......Page 803
17.23.6 The Uranium-234, Uranium-238 Geochronometer......Page 804
17.24 Uranium/Thorium/Lead......Page 805
17.24.1 Radioactive Series......Page 806
17.24.2 Concordia and Discordia......Page 808
17.24.3 Common Lead......Page 810
17.24.4 The Holmes/Houtermans Model......Page 811
17.24.5 Anomalous Lead......Page 812
17.24.6 Multistage Leads......Page 813
17.25 Uranium/Xenon, Uranium/Krypton......Page 814
17.25.1 Pitchblendes......Page 815
Further Reading......Page 816
43 99mTc: Labeling Chemistry and Labeled Compounds......Page 2073
18.1.1.1 Neptunium (Np)......Page 819
62.1.3.2 Pre-det and Post-det......Page 2322
59.2.2.2 The Russian Concept of the Model NPP Designs......Page 821
27.2.3.3 Chemical Reactions......Page 1471
57.3.6.3 The Critical State......Page 2635
18.1.1.7 Nobelium (No) and Lawrencium (Lr)......Page 823
60.5.1 Basic PSI Processes......Page 1011
18.1.2.1 Neutron Capture Reactions......Page 824
54.2.3.1 10Be......Page 827
54.2.3 Importance of Cosmogenic and SN Radionuclides and the Required Chemistry for AMS Analysis......Page 2475
33.3.3.2 Ion-Gamma Reactions......Page 1726
18.1.4.3 Spontaneous Fission......Page 842
18.1.4.4 Progress in Two-Mode Fission......Page 846
42.5.1 Microwave Applications in Radiolabeling......Page 850
61.5.5.1 Future of P&T......Page 2831
18.2.3.2 Solvent Extraction Separation......Page 853
18.2.6 Computational Chemistry of Transuranium Elements......Page 866
References......Page 869
61 Radioactive Waste Management......Page 878
62.1 Introduction......Page 879
19.2 A Brief History of Discoveries......Page 883
39.3 Production of Positron Emitters......Page 893
28.3.2 Muon Polarization, Surface Muons......Page 1490
43.3.1 Myocardial Imaging Agents......Page 1390
63.2.5 Material Balance Area and Measurement Points......Page 899
19.4 Nuclear Structure of the TransactinideTransactinidesNuclear Structure of Nuclides......Page 900
61.3.5 Commercial Nuclear Power Generation......Page 902
50.2.1 Principles of Direct Voltage Accelerators......Page 903
19.5.2 Experiment......Page 911
19.5.3 Future Perspectives......Page 916
41.6 Quality Control of 11C-Compounds......Page 2012
57.7 Editors´ Notes......Page 920
62 Nuclear Forensic Materials and Methods......Page 926
50.2.2 Accelerator Configurations......Page 2338
51.3.2 Simple and Countercurrent Cascades......Page 2373
56.1.2 Electron and Alpha Sources......Page 934
20.5 Element 104 (Rutherfordium)......Page 944
62.4.3.2 Particle Detection......Page 1983
39.2.5 Chemical Processing of the Irradiated Material......Page 1911
33.1.6 Fields of Application......Page 1711
35.3.3 Purity......Page 1569
52.2.3 Studies in Complex Chemistry......Page 1473
55.6.1 Averted Dose and Action Levels......Page 973
35.4.5 Accelerator Mass Spectrometry......Page 1369
20.10 Element 112 (Copernicium)......Page 991
50.3.3 Focusing the Particle Beam......Page 2357
35.11 Industrial Application of Radioactive Tracers......Page 995
20.12 Editors´ Notes......Page 996
References......Page 997
46.2 Design of Targeted Radiotherapeutics......Page 1010
21.3 Summary of Results to 1978......Page 1012
References......Page 1534
21.6.1 1999-2003......Page 1016
21.6.2 2004-2009......Page 1018
41.7 11C as a Tool in Chemistry Research......Page 1024
23 Radiation Chemistry......Page 1266
54.2 Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS)......Page 2372
52.1.2 Extraction Systems......Page 2407
61.3.1 Uranium Mining and Milling......Page 2672
23.4.2 Pulse Radiolysis, Technical Realization, and Detection Systems......Page 1278
43.3.4 Agents for Other Applications......Page 1282
62.3.1 Chronometry Versus Age-Dating......Page 2852
23.5.3 Dosimetry of gamma-Ray and Electron Irradiation......Page 1283
57.4.2 Reactors for Power Stations......Page 1285
63.2.13.1 Nondestructive Assay......Page 2903
23.6.3 Water as Reactor Coolant......Page 1290
51.7 Photochemical and Laser Isotope Separation......Page 2397
23.7.1 Ice......Page 1292
Acknowledgments......Page 2660
23.8.1 Saturated, Unsaturated, and Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 1294
28.6.1 Study of Nuclear Structure......Page 1300
23.8.3 Ionic Liquids......Page 1301
References......Page 1302
23.9.1 Polymerization, Kinetics, and Mechanism......Page 1303
63.3.6 Unattended NDA Systems......Page 1307
35.7.3 Exchange Reactions......Page 1312
23.10.4 Lipids......Page 1313
25.4.9 Time-Dependent Measurements......Page 1314
23.11.2 Applications of Radiation Chemistry to Nuclear Technology:The Purex Process......Page 1316
23.11.3 Radiation Processing......Page 1318
62.2 Chemical Aspects of Nuclear Forensic Science......Page 2843
42.3.2.1 Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitutions......Page 1397
23.12 Editors\' Note......Page 1327
References......Page 1328
51 Isotope Separation......Page 1695
63.1 Introduction......Page 2896
52.2 Solvent Extraction and Ion Exchange in Small-Scale Nuclear Chemistry......Page 1338
50.1.1 The Plasma Physics of Ion Sources......Page 2321
62.1.2 Historic Considerations......Page 2840
24.3 Enrichment of Radioisotopes by The Szilard-Chalmers Processes......Page 1343
36.3.1 Status of 14 MeV and 3 MeV Neutron Cross Sections......Page 1835
24.4.2 Halogens......Page 1357
24.4.3 Carbon......Page 1360
48.5 Scintillators......Page 1361
38.3.6 Cross Section Measurements and Flux Monitoring......Page 1877
41.4.3 Compounds for Study of Enzymes and Receptors......Page 2005
24.8 Other Topics in Hot Atom Chemistry......Page 1371
44.4.5 Heterobifunctional Reagents......Page 1880
55.3.1.1 Oceans......Page 1372
24.8.3.2 Molecular Rocket......Page 1374
24.8.4 Impact of Hot Atom Chemistry on Other Research Fields......Page 1377
39 Cyclotron Production of Medical Radionuclides......Page 1380
25.1.1 Isomeric Transition Between Nuclear Levels......Page 1383
25.1.3.1 Conditions of Nuclear Resonance Absorption......Page 1386
25.1.3.2 Lattice Vibrations......Page 1387
33.1.3.3 Micro PIXE Facilities......Page 1389
25.1.5 Hyperfine Interactions......Page 1396
25.1.5.2 Electric Quadrupole Interaction......Page 1401
58.2.3.2 Fast Reactor and Related Fuel Cycle......Page 1403
41.3.3.1 General......Page 1404
25.2.1.1 Chemical Isomer Shift......Page 1405
61.2 The Nuclear Fuel Cycle......Page 2288
57.4.2.4 The Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)......Page 2648
25.2.3 Magnetic Splitting......Page 1409
33.2.3 Elastic Recoil Detection, ERD......Page 1412
25.2.5 The f-Factor......Page 1413
63.2.11 Detection Probability......Page 1500
25.2.7 Mössbauer Parameters and Experimental Parameters......Page 1415
27.3.3.5 AMOC......Page 1481
61.5.4.2 Aqueous Schemes for the Separation of Minor Actinides from HLW from PUREX......Page 2826
61.5.4.3 Advantages of Nonaqueous Processes for Partitioning and Transmutation......Page 1418
25.2.7.5 Angular Dependence of Peak Areas/Intensities......Page 1419
47.4.3.1 Factors to Reduce Exposure from External Sources......Page 1421
25.3.1 The Fingerprint Method......Page 1422
25.3.4 Quantitative Analysis......Page 1428
52.4 Acronyms......Page 2426
52.3.4 Reprocessing of Nuclear Fuel......Page 2423
25.4.3 Reflection Geometry......Page 1430
25.4.3.1 Conversion Electron Mössbauer Spectroscopy......Page 1431
Detectors for CEMS......Page 1432
Depth Selective CEMS......Page 1433
25.4.5.1 Aftereffects......Page 1435
25.4.8 Capillary Mössbauer Spectroscopy......Page 1436
25.4.12 Sources and Absorbers......Page 1437
25.4.13 Cryostates, Furnaces, Magnets, and Pressure Cells......Page 1439
41.5 PET in Drug Development......Page 2010
25.5.1 Applications in Nuclear Sciences......Page 1440
25.5.2 Chemical and Analytical Applications......Page 1441
References......Page 1444
26 Mössbauer Excitation by Synchrotron Radiation......Page 1448
30.1 Introduction......Page 1449
26.2 Nuclear Resonant Elastic ScatteringNuclear Resonant Elastic Scattering......Page 1450
26.3 Nuclear Resonant Inelastic and Quasi-Elastic ScatteringQuasi-Elastic ScatteringInelastic ScatteringNuclear Resonant Inelas......Page 1455
54.4 Conclusion and Future Scope......Page 1460
53 Radiochemical Separations by Thermochromatography......Page 1462
63.2.3 Significant Quantity......Page 2522
41.2.2.2 Reaction Kinetics......Page 1981
42.3.2 Nucleophilic 18F-Fluorination......Page 2032
63.3.3.1 Gamma Ray Detectors......Page 1470
27.3.3.1 Positron Lifetime Spectroscopy......Page 1474
27.3.3.2 Angular Correlation of Annihilation Radiation......Page 1476
27.3.3.3 Doppler-Broadening Spectroscopy......Page 1478
41.3.3.4 Carbonylations......Page 1480
39.4 Production of Photon Emitters......Page 1924
35.4.3 Beta-Ray Measurements......Page 1769
27.4.2 Polymers......Page 1483
61.5.1 Transmutation of Minor Actinides......Page 2819
28.1 Introduction......Page 1488
59.2.1 Onboard Reactor Power Sources......Page 2023
39.2.3.2 Targets for Irradiations with Extracted Beams......Page 1908
28.3.4 Applications in Solid-State Physics and Chemistry......Page 1492
28.3.5 The Anomalous Magnetic Moment of the Muon......Page 1495
55.5.2 Medical Exposure......Page 2533
28.4.5 Exotic Hydrogen Atoms......Page 1499
29.5.1.1 Reactor SourcesReactor sources......Page 1543
47.7.2 Cytogenetic Assays......Page 1501
51.6.1 Gas Chromatography......Page 2361
28.6.2 Pionic Hydrogen Atoms......Page 1504
28.6.2.1 Principle of Study......Page 1505
61.1.1.2 Low-Level Waste (LLW)......Page 2219
60.5.2 Physical Sputtering......Page 2326
28.6.2.4 Development of the LMM Model......Page 1507
33.3.4 Quantitative Elemental Analysis......Page 1606
46.2.2.2 Monoclonal Antibodies......Page 2187
28.6.3.2 Long-Lived Antiprotonic Helium......Page 1508
References......Page 1512
29.1.2 Comparison with X-ray ScatteringX-ray scattering......Page 1519
56.2 Fission Product Yields......Page 2575
29.2.1.3 The Scattering LengthScattering length......Page 1520
54.2.1.2 Tandem Accelerator......Page 2466
62.2.1 Commonly Used Chemical Methods in the Radiochemical Forensic Laboratory......Page 1521
29.2.2.2 Coherent and Incoherent ScatteringIncoherent scatteringCoherent and incoherent scattering......Page 1523
29.2.2.3 Correlation FunctionsCorrelation functionsfor nuclear scattering for Nuclear ScatteringNuclear scatteringcorrelation f......Page 1524
55.3.2.2 Soil......Page 2330
61.4.2.4 Recycling U......Page 2816
29.3.1.4 Time-of-Flight (TOF)Time-of-flight (TOF) Variants of Neutron DiffractionNeutron diffractionTime-of-flight (TOF) Method......Page 1532
60.5.6 Edge Plasmas in Magnetically Confined Fusion Devices......Page 1915
29.4.1.2 Determination of the Radial Distribution Function from Neutron Diffraction of Liquids......Page 1536
29.4.2 Microscopic Dynamics in Liquids......Page 1538
58.2.5.1 Features of HTGR......Page 1539
61.4.2 Fuel Reprocessing......Page 2811
48.5.3 Liquid Scintillators......Page 2281
53.5 Preparative Radiochemistry......Page 2449
29.5.1.2 Spallation SourcesSpallation sources......Page 1544
52.2.8 Production of 239Np Tracer......Page 2421
29.5.2.3 Monochromator CrystalMonochromator crystals......Page 1545
31.9.1.8 Advances and Applications in k0 PGAA......Page 1546
50.3.2.6 Linear Accelerators......Page 2354
29.5.3 Detection of NeutronsNeutrondetection of......Page 1547
47.9.1 Biological Effects of Low Radiation Doses......Page 1548
29.5.4.2 Neutron Spin Echo SpectrometerNeutron spin echo spectrometer......Page 1549
References......Page 1550
48 Radiation Detection......Page 2259
59.2 Reactor Power Sources......Page 1556
61.3 The Front-End of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle......Page 2802
30.3.1.2 Thermal Neutron Activation Analysis (TNAA)......Page 1565
30.3.1.5 Neutron-Induced Prompt Gamma Activation Analysis (PGAA)Prompt Gamma Activation Analysis (PGAA)......Page 1566
61.3.4 Fuel Fabrication......Page 1568
50.4 Editors´ Notes......Page 2364
44.4.2 Iodogen......Page 1632
47.3.2.5 Organ Dose, DT......Page 2224
30.4.2 Irradiation......Page 1571
30.4.2.3 External Systems......Page 1572
30.4.3 Gamma-Ray Spectrometry......Page 1573
30.4.3.1 Detector Systems......Page 1574
30.4.3.2 Analyzer Systems......Page 1575
30.4.4.1 Comparator Method......Page 1577
Development of the k0 Method......Page 1578
Details of the k0 method......Page 1579
Practical Considerations......Page 1581
Measuring f and α......Page 1582
Ethanol-Monochlorobenzene Dosimeter......Page 1583
Accuracy......Page 1584
30.5.1 Major Types of RAA......Page 1585
47.5 System of Radiological Protection of Humans......Page 1771
30.5.3.1 Removal of the Main Activity and Separation of Element Groups......Page 1587
30.5.3.2 Separation of a Single Element......Page 1589
31.6.1 Fundamental Processes......Page 1638
30.5.4.1 Removal of the Main Interfering Activities......Page 1590
Radionuclide Production and Research Reactors......Page 1591
Determination of Toxic Elements by RNAA......Page 1592
Determination of Elements of Radiological Importance......Page 1593
Determination of Other Elements......Page 1594
30.5.4.3 Separation of Several Elements and Various Groups of Elements......Page 1596
30.5.5.1 Determination of 129I by PC-RNAA......Page 1598
30.5.5.3 Determination of 99Tc by PC-RNAA......Page 1599
30.5.6 Application of NAA for Speciation Studies......Page 1600
30.6.1.1 Nuclear Reaction Rate and Sample Integrity......Page 1601
30.6.1.2 Geometry Uncertainties in Irradiation and Counting......Page 1602
30.6.1.4 Uncertainties in Signal Detection and Processing......Page 1603
30.6.1.5 Gamma-Ray Spectrum Evaluation and Software......Page 1604
30.6.1.6 Interferences......Page 1605
30.7.1 Fundamentals of the Technique......Page 1609
30.7.3 Concentration Determination......Page 1610
62.6.3 Hoax: Radioactive - Source Analyses Only......Page 2885
30.7.5 Sources of Uncertainty......Page 1612
30.8 Editors´ Notes......Page 1613
35.9 Biochemical Application of Radioactive Tracers......Page 1789
References......Page 1900
31.1 Introduction......Page 1622
31.2.2.1 Thin Sample Approximation......Page 1624
31.2.2.2 ``Black´´ Sample Approximation......Page 1625
45.2.4 Macrocyclic Bifunctional Chelators......Page 1627
51.4.3 Large-Scale Separations, Energy Demands, and Comparisons......Page 1629
63.2.6 Material Stratification for Sampling......Page 2900
31.4.7 PGAA Facilities......Page 1636
31.5.2 Standardization......Page 1637
47.6 Health Hazards of Radiation Exposure......Page 2102
38.3.3.3 Fast Neutrons......Page 1639
47.3.1.4 Individual and Collective Doses......Page 1640
31.6.2.3 Response Function of Germanium Detectors......Page 1641
54.2.2.3 Quality Control Parameters......Page 2474
33.2.2.2 Intensity......Page 1717
31.6.3.4 Determination of Spectral Background......Page 1648
31.6.4 Compton-Suppressed Spectrometers......Page 1649
52.3.7 Final Storage of Radioactive Waste......Page 2425
31.6.5.1 Composite Germanium Detectors......Page 1650
31.6.5.3 Chopped-Beam PGAA......Page 1651
Acknowledgments......Page 2832
31.8.2 Relative Approach......Page 1655
47.9 Dose-Response Relationships......Page 2252
50.2.3.4 Acceleration Tubes......Page 1657
55.5.2.3 Teletherapy and Brachytherapy......Page 2538
31.9.1.4 Chopped Beams......Page 1658
31.9.1.7 Improvements in signal-to-noise ratio......Page 1659
Ferrous Sulfate (Fricke) Dosimeter......Page 2233
31.9.2 Measurements of Cross sections, Gamma-Ray Energies, and Emission Probabilities......Page 1660
31.9.3 Identification of Explosives and Fissile Materials......Page 1661
35.7.7 Search for Formation of New Compounds......Page 1662
31.9.6 Analysis of Boron......Page 1664
31.9.7 Biological and Environmental Applications......Page 1665
63.5.2.1 Cotton Swipe and Other Swipe Materials......Page 2988
31.9.9 Characterization of Geological Materials......Page 1666
31.9.10 Quality Assurance and Analysis of Reference Materials......Page 1667
References......Page 1668
32 Applications of Neutron......Page 1674
32.2 Activation Analysis with 14 and 3 MeV Neutrons......Page 1675
32.3.1 Neutron Methods......Page 1679
32.3.2 Gamma-Ray Methods......Page 1681
32.4 Neutron Imaging and Profiling Systems......Page 1683
32.5 Fast Neutron Irradiation Effects in Solids......Page 1687
32.6 Radiobiology with Fast Neutrons......Page 1688
32.7 Neutron Attenuation and Shielding......Page 1689
32.8 Editors’ Notes......Page 1692
References......Page 1693
33.1.3.2 External Beam PIXE Chambers......Page 1701
44.3.4 Radioiododeboronation......Page 1705
50.1.3.4 Radio Frequency and Microwave Ion Source......Page 2328
43.3.2 Cerebral Blood Flow Agents......Page 1708
47.3.2.2 Exposure Dose, X......Page 1715
43.4.3 Inhibitors......Page 1718
33.2.7 Secondary Effects......Page 1721
61.5.3 Strategies for the Transmutation of Minor Actinides and Long-Lived Fission Products......Page 2823
62.4.5 Isotope Mass Spectrometry......Page 1722
36.3 Fast Neutron Reaction Data......Page 1834
33.3.2 Physical Background of NRA......Page 1724
33.3.3.1 Ion-Ion Reactions......Page 1725
33.3.4.2 Determination of Concentrations......Page 1729
Resonant Profiling......Page 1730
33.3.5 Fields of Application......Page 1731
34 Microscopic X-ray Fluorescence Analysis with Synchrotron Radiation Sources......Page 1737
44.1 Introduction......Page 1738
34.4 Micro-X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis as an Accurate Method of Microanalysis......Page 1745
63.2.1 Diversion Strategy......Page 1763
34.5.2 Quantitative Analysis......Page 1748
34.6 Related Techniques......Page 1750
34.6.1.2 Confocal XRF-Imaging......Page 1753
34.7 Summary......Page 1758
References......Page 1759
58.2.4 Light Water Reactor (LWR)......Page 1764
35.4.4 Alpha-Ray Measurements......Page 1770
35.5.3 Use of a Radioactive Tracer......Page 1772
35.6.3 RI Beam......Page 1775
35.6.4 Measurement of Radioactive Multitracers......Page 1776
35.7 Chemical Application of Radioactive Tracers......Page 1777
35.7.1 Chemical Equilibria......Page 1778
35.7.2 Reaction Kinetics and Mechanisms......Page 1780
35.7.5 Surface and Solid Reactions......Page 1783
35.7.6 Diffusion......Page 1784
References......Page 1785
35.8.1 Isotope Dilution Analysis......Page 1786
35.8.2 Radiometric Analysis......Page 1788
35.10 Geological Application of Radioactive Tracers......Page 1790
References......Page 1792
60 Technical Developments for Harnessing Controlled Fusion......Page 1793
36.2.2 Thermal Neutron Capture γ Rays......Page 1810
36.3.3 Recommended Reactions and γ Rays for Activation Analysis......Page 1846
38 Reactor-Produced Medical Radionuclides......Page 1857
40.1.2 Equations of Radioactive Decay and Growth......Page 1937
38.3.1 Neutron Interactions with Matter......Page 1865
48.4.2 Si for Photons......Page 1993
61.1.1.1 Exempt Waste......Page 1872
38.3.3.2 Epithermal Neutrons and Resonances......Page 1874
38.4 Targetry......Page 1879
38.4.7 Target Transport Systems......Page 1881
38.5 Chemical Processing......Page 1882
38.7 Current Requirements and Challenges......Page 1883
51.9 Editors´ Notes......Page 2401
38.8.1 Molybdenum-99 Produced by Fission and Neutron Capture Reactions......Page 1884
38.8.2 Iodine-131 Produced by Fission and Neutron Capture Reactions......Page 1886
38.8.3 Indium-114m Produced by Neutron Capture Reactions......Page 1888
38.8.4 Lutetium-177 Produced by Neutron Capture Reactions......Page 1889
38.8.5 Iodine-125 Produced by Neutron Capture Followed by betta- Decay......Page 1893
38.8.6 Tungsten-188 Produced by Double Neutron Capture......Page 1896
38.8.7 Tin-117m Produced by Neutron Inelastic Scattering......Page 1897
38.8.8 Copper-67 Produced by fast Neutron-Induced Reactions......Page 1898
39.2.3.3 Targets for Irradiations with Parasitic Beams......Page 1910
61.3.3 Enrichment......Page 2804
55.3.2.4 Foodstuffs and Algae......Page 2518
39.3.2.3 Positron Emitting Analogs of SPECT and Therapeutic Radionuclides......Page 1923
40 Radionuclide Generators......Page 1935
40.1.2.1 Transient Equilibrium......Page 1938
40.1.2.2 Secular Equilibrium......Page 1939
40.1.3 Classifications......Page 1941
57.3.2 Neutron Moderation......Page 1945
40.2.3 Key Examples of Generator-Derived Positron-Emitting Radionuclides......Page 1950
40.3 Generator-Produced Photon Emitters......Page 1955
40.3.2 Key Examples of Generator-Produced Photon Emitters with Proven Medical Applications......Page 1956
40.4.1 Overview......Page 1959
40.4.2 Key Examples of Generator-Derived Therapeutic Radionuclides with Proven Medical Applications......Page 1961
40.5.2 Examples of In Vivo Generators......Page 1967
References......Page 1968
56.1 Standards for Detector Calibration......Page 1979
57.2.1 Oklo......Page 2617
63.3.4.4 Multiplicity Coincidence Counting......Page 2646
41.3.3.3 Cross-Couplings......Page 1994
41.3.3.5 Copper-Mediated Reactions......Page 1999
63.2.8 Sampling Plan......Page 2002
41.5.3 11C-Tracers in Drug Development......Page 2011
42 18F: Labeling Chemistry and Labeled Compounds......Page 2021
42.3.1.1 Direct Fluorination......Page 2026
59.3.1.1 The Choice of Radionuclides and the Methods of RTG Manufacturing......Page 2035
42.3.2.3 Nucleophilic Heteroaromatic Substitutions......Page 2040
42.3.2.4 Nucleophilic Aliphatic Substitution......Page 2041
48.4.1 Si for Alphas......Page 2266
63.3.4.3 Neutron Coincidence Counting......Page 2046
42.3.3.2 Introduction of 18F-Fluorine by Fluoroethylation......Page 2047
42.3.3.3 Introduction of 18F-Fluorine by Other Secondary Precursors......Page 2049
54.2.3.3 53Mn......Page 2341
42.4 18F-Labeling of Peptides and Proteins......Page 2051
42.5.2 Silicon-Based 18F-Chemistry......Page 2059
52.1.3 Equipment......Page 2408
43.4 Different Types (Generations) of 99mTc-Radiopharmaceuticals......Page 2090
43.4.2 Receptor-Specific Molecules......Page 2091
52.2.6 Radioanalytical Chemistry......Page 2386
43.5.2 Direct Labeling Approach......Page 2100
43.5.3 Integrated Approach......Page 2101
63.3.1 Introduction......Page 2104
43.6.3 Myocardial Imaging Agents......Page 2108
43.6.5 Multidrug Resistance......Page 2112
References......Page 2114
44.2 Radioisotopes of Iodine for Life Sciences......Page 2122
58.2.1 Introduction......Page 2181
63.2.2 Type of Material......Page 2125
44.3.3 Radioiododestannylation......Page 2126
44.3.6 Other Methods......Page 2131
52.2.2 Isolation of Exotic Radionuclides......Page 2132
61.4.1 Spent Fuel......Page 2133
47.5.3 Limitation of Exposure to Ionizing Radiation......Page 2241
44.6 Examples of Clinical Applications......Page 2140
57.4.3 Nuclear Weapons......Page 2245
45.2 Choice and Synthesis of Bifunctional Chelators......Page 2146
45.2.3 Acyclic Bifunctional Chelators......Page 2149
62.1.3.1 Improvised Nuclear Device (IND) and Radiologic Dispersal Device (RDD)......Page 2391
46.2.1.2.0 Heterogeneities Related to the Properties of the Labeled Molecule......Page 2184
57.3.1.3 Fast (Unmoderated) Fission Neutrons......Page 2185
46.2.2 Selection of the Targeting Vehicle......Page 2186
46.2.2.2.0 Antibody Structure......Page 2188
46.2.2.2.0 Antibody Fragments......Page 2190
46.2.2.2.0 General Considerations for Labeling mAbs and Their Fragments......Page 2191
46.2.2.3 Peptides as Radionuclide Carriers......Page 2192
46.3 Radionuclides for Targeted Radiotherapy......Page 2194
46.3.1.1.0 Copper-67......Page 2196
Exposure of Workers......Page 2236
46.3.1.2 Medium Range β-Particle Emitters......Page 2197
46.3.2.1 Terbium-149......Page 2199
46.3.2.2 Astatine-211......Page 2200
46.3.2.3 Bismuth-212......Page 2201
46.3.2.5 Actinium-225......Page 2202
46.3.3 Low-Energy Electron Emitters......Page 2203
54.1 Introduction......Page 2215
55.3.1 Aquatic Environment (Oceans, Rivers, Lakes)......Page 2507
47.3 Dosimetric Quantities and Units......Page 2218
49.3.1.1 Aqueous Chemical Dosimeters......Page 2290
47.3.1.3 Effective Dose, E......Page 2220
47.3.1.5 Dose Rate......Page 2222
47.3.2.1 Committed Dose......Page 2223
47.4.1.2 Cloud Immersion and Surface Contamination......Page 2227
47.4.2.2 Ingestion Pathway......Page 2229
47.4.2.3 The MIRD Methodology......Page 2230
55.5.3 Global Fallout and Nuclear Facilities......Page 2539
55.5.2.4 Therapeutic Administrations of Radiopharmaceuticals......Page 2232
Radon Dosimeter......Page 2234
Isotope Dilution Mass Spectrometry......Page 2978
Monitoring at Workplaces......Page 2235
50.3.2.4 Synchrotron......Page 2352
Release of Patients Administered a Radiopharmaceutical......Page 2237
Radon in the Atmosphere......Page 2238
Actions to Reduce the Radon Dose in Dwellings......Page 2240
55.6.3 Intervention Levels......Page 2243
47.7 Diagnostic Procedures for Radiation Injuries (Biological Dosimetry)......Page 2247
61.5.2 Transmutation of the Long-Lived Fission Products......Page 2248
47.7.2.1 Lymphocyte Metaphase Chromosomes......Page 2249
63.3.8.2 Novel Technologies......Page 2944
47.8 Management of Overexposures......Page 2250
47.9.2 The LNT Theory and Its Critical Review......Page 2254
References......Page 2257
48.1 Introduction......Page 2260
48.3.2 Geiger-Müller......Page 2263
48.3.4 Avalanche Detectors......Page 2265
48.4.3 Ge for Photons......Page 2268
48.4.4 Other Semiconductors......Page 2278
48.6 Neutrinos and Fission Fragments......Page 2285
Ceric Sulfate (or Ceric-Cerous Sulfate) Dosimeter......Page 2291
Dichromate Dosimeter......Page 2292
Tetrazolium Dosimeter Solutions......Page 2293
58.2.2.2 Harmonization with Nature......Page 2294
Radiochromic Dye Solutions......Page 2296
49.3.2.1 Dosimetry Systems Based on the Measurement of Optical Absorption......Page 2297
Undyed Solid Systems......Page 2298
Dyed Solid Systems......Page 2299
Thermoluminescent Dosimeters (TLDs)......Page 2302
Cosmos-954......Page 2551
Radiophotoluminescent Dosimeters......Page 2304
49.4.1.3 Types of Calorimeters......Page 2310
55.3.1.4 River......Page 2327
50.1.5.2 Electron Beam Ion Source (EBIS) and Ion Trap (EBIT)......Page 2333
50.1.6.2 Ion Sources for Negative Ions......Page 2335
50.2.3.3 Terminal and Insulator Stack......Page 2345
50.2.3.5 Energy Analysis and Stabilization......Page 2346
50.2.5 Microbeam Channels......Page 2347
50.3.1 Basic Principles of Operation......Page 2348
50.3.2.3 Isochronous Cyclotron......Page 2350
50.3.2.7 Radio Frequency Quadrupoles......Page 2355
50.3.2.9 Microtrons......Page 2356
50.3.3.1 Magnetic Field......Page 2358
50.3.3.2 Coupled Resonances......Page 2359
50.3.3.3 Electric Field......Page 2360
50.3.4.2 Intensity......Page 2362
58.3.3.1 Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor System......Page 2363
References......Page 2365
51.4 Isotope Separation Processes......Page 2377
51.4.1 Electromagnetic Separation......Page 2378
51.4.5 Centrifugation......Page 2382
51.4.6 Aerodynamic Isotope Separation......Page 2383
61.5 Partitioning and Transmutation (P&T)......Page 2818
51.5.3 Distillation......Page 2389
51.5.4 Specific Examples, Isotope Separation by Distillation......Page 2390
59.2.2.1 Programs of the NPP Development in the USSR and the USA and the Achieved Results......Page 2392
51.7.1 Outline of a Laser Isotope Separation (LIS) Scheme......Page 2398
51.7.2 LIS of Deuterium......Page 2399
51.7.3.2 LIS of UF6......Page 2400
52.1 Introduction......Page 2404
52.1.1 Solvent Extraction Theory......Page 2405
52.2.1 Nuclide Production......Page 2410
52.2.5 On-Line Determination of Iodine Speciation in Reactor Water......Page 2416
52.3.5 Partitioning and Transmutation......Page 2424
References......Page 2500
53.3.2 The Potential of Thermochromatography for Radiochemical Separations......Page 2435
53.4 Systematic Experiments......Page 2439
References......Page 2455
57 Technical Application of Nuclear Fission......Page 2459
54.2.1.1.0 Ion Source......Page 2463
54.2.1.1.0 Injection Magnet......Page 2465
54.2.1.3.0 Magnetic Analyzer......Page 2467
Containment......Page 2693
54.2.1.3.0 Gas-Filled Magnet......Page 2468
54.2.1.4 Faraday Cups......Page 2469
54.2.1.5.0 Gas Ionization Detectors......Page 2471
54.2.2.1 Pretreatment of Samples......Page 2473
54.2.3.2 26Al......Page 2478
54.2.3.4 129I......Page 2480
54.2.3.5 60Fe......Page 2481
54.2.3.6 146Sm......Page 2482
62.4.6.2 Sample Prep......Page 2871
54.3.1.1 Components of ICP-MS......Page 2485
54.3.1.1.0 Sample Introduction System......Page 2486
54.3.1.1.0 Plasma Sampling Interface......Page 2487
54.3.1.1.0 Mass Analyzer......Page 2488
54.3.1.1.0 Detectors......Page 2490
54.3.1.2 Application of ICP-MS in Long-lived Analysis......Page 2491
54.3.2.2.0 Atom Source......Page 2492
54.3.2.2.0 Lasers......Page 2493
54.3.2.3 Application of RIMS......Page 2494
54.3.3.1 Principle and Components: A Quick Look......Page 2495
54.3.3.2 Application of TIMS in Cosmochemical Analysis......Page 2496
54.3.4.2 NanoSIMS 50......Page 2498
54.3.4.3 Application of nanoSIMS......Page 2499
63.2 Safeguards Verification Measurement Procedures......Page 2898
55.3 Radionuclides in the Environment......Page 2506
55.3.1.2 Sediments......Page 2510
55.3.1.5 Lakes......Page 2514
55.3.2.1 Atmosphere......Page 2515
55.4.2 Radionuclides in the Food Chain......Page 2524
Aircraft altitudes......Page 2528
Nuclear Power System SNAP-10 (USA)......Page 2529
Other than radon......Page 2531
Production of weapon materials......Page 2540
Solid-waste disposal and transport......Page 2543
58.2.6.1 Features of FR......Page 2547
Windscale......Page 2549
Category 3......Page 2552
55.5.4.1 The Nuclear Fuel Cycle......Page 2554
Outline placeholder......Page 0
63.3.8.1 New Technologies......Page 2555
55.5.4.3 Industrial Use of Radiation......Page 2556
55.5.4.4 Natural Sources of Radiation......Page 2557
55.6.1.2 The Concept for Intervention......Page 2558
55.7 Editors´ Notes......Page 2560
56.1.1.1 Wavelengths and Energies......Page 2566
59.3 Radioisotope (Radionuclide) Power Sources......Page 2612
57.3.1 Thermal and Fast Reactor Types - Neutron Physics in a Reactor......Page 2622
57.3.1.2 Epithermal Neutrons (Resonance Region)......Page 2623
57.3.5 The Criticality Factor - Neutron Multiplication Factor k......Page 2632
57.3.6.1 The Subcritical State......Page 2634
57.4.1 Research Reactors......Page 2638
57.4.2.1 The Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)......Page 2640
57.4.2.5 The Concept of the Accelerator-Driven System (ADS)......Page 2651
57.5.1 Manufacture of the Fuel and Fuel Elements......Page 2656
57.5.2 Reprocessing of Spent Nuclear Fuel......Page 2658
57.5.3 Storage of Nuclear Waste......Page 2659
58 Developments and Tendencies in Fission Reactor Concepts......Page 2663
58.1 Editors´ Introduction......Page 2666
58.2.2.4 Safety Assurance......Page 2671
58.2.3.3 An Expected Nuclear Energy System......Page 2674
58.2.3.4 Advanced Nuclear Reactors......Page 2676
63.3.5.1 Gamma Methods......Page 2678
Simple and Easy-to-Understand Safety Principles......Page 2679
Nonaqueous Processing: Electrometallurgical Treatment: ANL......Page 2828
Radiometric Isotope Dilution Assay Techniques......Page 2681
58.2.4.5 Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor (SCWR)......Page 2682
63.3.6.1 Unattended Gamma-Based NDA Systems......Page 2684
58.2.5.4 Safety of HTGR......Page 2686
58.2.5.5 Development Status of HTGR......Page 2687
58.2.5.6 High Temperature Gas-Cooled Fast Reactors......Page 2689
58.2.6 Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor (SFR)......Page 2690
58.2.6.3 System Configuration of SFR......Page 2691
Shutdown......Page 2692
Safety Concern About Chemical Reactivity of Sodium......Page 2694
58.2.6.6 Comparison of SFR types......Page 2695
FR as a Base-Load Power Supply......Page 2697
Multipurpose Use of Medium-and Small-Sized FRs......Page 2700
58.2.7 Molten-Salt Reactor (MSR)......Page 2702
58.3.2.1 Fast Reactor of Natural Safety......Page 2707
Selection of Coolant......Page 2709
Selection of Fuel......Page 2711
58.3.2.3 Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor with an On-Site Fuel Cycle......Page 2713
58.3.2.4 Fuel Cycle of Fast Reactors......Page 2717
58.3.2.5 Technological Consolidation of the Nonproliferation Regime......Page 2721
58.3.3.2 Molten-Salt Reactor System......Page 2724
58.3.3.3 Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor System......Page 2727
References......Page 2728
Beta-Particle Counters......Page 2860
Space Thermoelectric System ``Buk´´......Page 2738
Space Nuclear Power System ``Topaz´´ with Multi-Cell TFEs......Page 2740
Space Nuclear Power System ``Yenisey´´ with Single-Cell TFEs......Page 2742
Russian-American Cooperation......Page 2744
59.2.3 Nuclear Power Propulsion Systems (NPPS)......Page 2749
59.3.1 Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs)......Page 2751
59.3.1.2 Purpose. Classification. Basic Requirements and RTG Performances......Page 2753
59.3.1.3 Examples of RTG Designs for Terrestrial and Space Applications......Page 2755
60.2 Inertial Confinement Fusion......Page 2763
60.4 Technology of Magnetic Confinement Fusion Devices......Page 2769
60.5.4 Chemical Sputtering......Page 2783
61.2.1 Options in the Fuel Cycle That Impact Waste Management......Page 2801
61.3.6 Fast Reactors......Page 2807
61.4.2.1 PUREX, the Industry Standard......Page 2812
61.4.2.3 Recycling plutonium as mixed-oxide fuel (MOX)......Page 2814
61.4.3.1 Geologic Disposal......Page 2817
61.5.4.1 Improved PUREX Process......Page 2825
References......Page 2833
62.1.3 Facets of Nuclear Forensic Analysis......Page 2841
62.2.2 Tracers in Inorganic Analysis......Page 2847
62.2.3 Radiochemical Milking......Page 2850
62.4.1 Application of Radiochemical Procedures......Page 2856
62.4.3.1 Nuclear Counting......Page 2859
62.4.4.1 Optical Microscopy......Page 2863
62.4.4.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy......Page 2864
62.4.5.1 Isotope-Ratio MS......Page 2866
62.4.5.2 Element MS......Page 2867
62.4.5.3 MS and In Situ Microanalysis......Page 2868
62.5.2 Separation of Uranium Isotopes and 235U Enrichment......Page 2873
62.5.4 Recovery and Purification of Special Nuclear Materials from Reactor Products......Page 2879
62.5.5 Heavy Element Metals and Alloys......Page 2881
62.6.4 Incident: Natural Radioactivity - Source Analyses Only......Page 2886
62.6.5 Real: Radioactive - Source and Route Analyses......Page 2887
63.2.9 Inspection Activities for Safeguards Verification Measurements......Page 2901
63.2.10 Inspection Frequency......Page 2902
63.2.14 Evaluations of Accountability Verification Measurements......Page 2904
63.3 Non-Destructive Assay (NDA)......Page 2905
63.3.2 Safeguards Environment and Measurement Conditions......Page 2907
63.3.3 Gamma Ray Spectrometry......Page 2909
63.3.3.3 High-Resolution Gamma Spectroscopy (HRGS)......Page 2913
63.3.4.2 Gross Neutron Counting......Page 2917
63.3.4.5 Active Neutron Coincidence Counting......Page 2922
63.3.5 Spent Fuel Measurement......Page 2923
63.3.5.2 Neutron Methods......Page 2925
63.3.5.3 Combined Gamma/Neutron Methods......Page 2926
63.3.5.4 Optical Methods......Page 2927
63.3.6.2 Unattended Neutron-Based NDA Systems......Page 2931
63.3.6.3 Other Unattended NDA Systems......Page 2934
63.3.7.1 Physical Property Measurement......Page 2935
63.3.7.2 Calorimetric Techniques......Page 2937
63.3.7.3 X-Ray Measurements......Page 2938
63.3.7.4 Analytical NDA Techniques at Laboratories......Page 2940
63.3.8 New and Novel Technologies......Page 2941
63.4.2 Bulk Measurement, Sampling, Conditioning, and Shipment of Safeguards Inspection Samples......Page 2950
63.4.2.1 Spent Fuel Solutions......Page 2951
63.4.2.2 Uranium Hexafluoride in Pressurized Cylinders......Page 2952
63.4.2.3 Plutonium Oxide Powders......Page 2954
63.4.2.4 Uranium Dirty Scrap Materials......Page 2956
63.4.3.1 Off-Site Laboratories......Page 2957
63.4.3.2 On-Site Laboratories......Page 2958
Isotopic Analysis by Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry......Page 2960
Isotopic Analysis by Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry......Page 2966
63.4.4.2 238Pu Abundance by Alpha Spectrometry......Page 2967
63.4.4.3 Gamma Spectrometry of Nuclear Material Samples......Page 2970
63.4.5.1 Ignition Gravimetry of U, Pu, Th......Page 2971
63.4.5.2 Uranium Titration......Page 2972
63.4.5.3 Plutonium Titration......Page 2973
63.4.5.4 Controlled Potential Coulometry of Plutonium......Page 2975
63.4.5.6 Spectrophotometric Determination of Hexavalent Plutonium......Page 2982
63.4.5.7 X-ray Absorption and Fluorescence Spectrometry......Page 2983
63.4.5.8 Assay of Alternative Nuclear Materials......Page 2984
63.5.1 Introduction......Page 2985
63.5.2.2 Air Filters......Page 2989
63.5.2.3 Water, Soil, Vegetation, and Biota Samples......Page 2990
63.5.3.1 Clean Laboratory for Safeguards......Page 2991
63.5.4 Sample Screening Methods......Page 2994
63.5.5 Bulk Sample Analysis......Page 2995
63.5.5.1 Tracers......Page 2996
63.5.5.2 Sample Preparations and Separations......Page 2997
63.5.5.4 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry......Page 2998
63.5.6 Particle Analysis......Page 2999
63.5.6.2 Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry......Page 3000
63.5.6.3 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry......Page 3001
63.5.6.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy with X-Ray Spectrometry......Page 3002