Handbook of Industrial Hydrocarbon Processes

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Handbook of Industrial Hydrocarbon Processes
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About the Author
Preface
1. Chemistry and chemical technology
	1. Introduction
	2. Organic chemistry
		2.1 Organic chemicals
		2.2 The chemical bond
		2.3 Bonding in carbon-based systems
	3. Chemical engineering
		3.1 Conservation of mass
		3.2 Conservation of energy
		3.3 Conservation of momentum
	4. Chemical technology
		4.1 Historical aspects
		4.2 Technology and human culture
	5. Hydrocarbons
		5.1 Bonding in hydrocarbons
		5.2 Nomenclature
			5.2.1 Alkanes
			5.2.2 Alkenes
			5.2.3 Alkynes
			5.2.4 Cycloalkanes
			5.2.5 Aromatic hydrocarbons
	6. Isomers
	7. Nonhydrocarbons
		7.1 Acids
		7.2 Alcohols
		7.3 Aldehydes
		7.4 Amides
		7.5 Amines
		7.6 Esters
		7.7 Ethers
		7.8 Halides
		7.9 Ketones
	8. Properties of hydrocarbons
		8.1 Behavior
		8.2 Combustion and the heat of combustion
		8.3 Density
		8.4 Substitution and addition reactions
		8.5 Volatility, flammability, and explosive properties
	References
	Further reading
2. Sources of hydrocarbons
	1. Introduction
	2. Natural sources
		2.1 Crude oil
			2.1.1 Opportunity crude oil
			2.1.2 High acid crude oil
			2.1.3 Foamy oil
			2.1.4 Heavy oil
			2.1.5 Crude oil production
			2.1.6 Crude oil refining
		2.2 Natural gas
			2.2.1 Composition
			2.2.2 Gas hydrates
			2.2.3 Gas processing
	3. Unconventional sources
		3.1 Extra heavy oil
		3.2 Tar sand bitumen
		3.3 Coal
		3.4 Oil shale
		3.5 Wax
		3.6 Biomass
		3.7 Municipal and industrial waste
		3.8 Wood and wood wastes
		3.9 Agricultural residues
	References
	Further reading
3. Hydrocarbons from crude oil
	1. Introduction
	2. Gaseous products
		2.1 Manufacture
		2.2 Composition
		2.3 Properties and uses
	3. Naphtha
		3.1 Manufacture
		3.2 Composition
		3.3 Properties and uses
	4. Gasoline
		4.1 Manufacture
		4.2 Composition
		4.3 Properties and uses
	5. Kerosene and related fuels
		5.1 Manufacture
		5.2 Composition
		5.3 Properties and uses
	6. Diesel fuel
		6.1 Manufacture
		6.2 Composition
		6.3 Properties and uses
	7. Gas oil and fuel oil
		7.1 Manufacture
		7.2 Composition
		7.3 Properties and uses
	8. Lubricating oil
		8.1 Manufacture
			8.1.1 Chemical refining processes
			8.1.2 Hydroprocessing
			8.1.3 Solvent refining processes
			8.1.4 Catalytic dewaxing
			8.1.5 Solvent dewaxing
			8.1.6 Finishing processes
			8.1.7 Older processes
		8.2 Composition
		8.3 Properties and uses
	9. Wax
		9.1 Manufacture
		9.2 Composition
		9.3 Properties and uses
	References
	Further reading
4. Hydrocarbons from natural gas and natural gas hydrates
	1. Introduction
	2. Gas processing
		2.1 Water removal
		2.2 Fractionation
			2.2.1 Absorption process
			2.2.2 Cryogenic process
			2.2.3 Fractionation of natural gas liquids
		2.3 Acid gas removal
	3. Natural gas hydrates
		3.1 Deposits
		3.2 Composition
		3.3 Other types of gases
		3.4 Properties
		3.5 Development
	4. Hydrocarbon products
		4.1 Methane
		4.2 Ethane and higher homologs
		4.3 Natural gas liquids
		4.4 Gas condensate
		4.5 Synthesis gas
	References
	Further reading
5. Hydrocarbons from coal
	1. Introduction
	2. Occurrence and reserves
	3. Formation and types
		3.1 Coal formation
		3.2 Coal types
		3.3 Coalbed methane
	4. Mining and preparation
		4.1 Surface mining
		4.2 Underground mining
		4.3 Coal preparation
	5. Properties
		5.1 Physical properties
			5.1.1 Density (specific gravity)
			5.1.2 Porosity and surface area
			5.1.3 Reflectance
		5.2 Mechanical properties
			5.2.1 Hardness
			5.2.2 Friability
			5.2.3 Grindability
		5.3 Thermal properties
			5.3.1 Calorific value
			5.3.2 Heat capacity
		5.4 Thermal conductivity
			5.4.1 Plastic and agglutinating properties
			5.4.2 Agglomerating index and free swelling index
	6. Hydrocarbon products
		6.1 Gasification processes
			6.1.1 Fixed-bed processes
			6.1.2 Entrained-bed processes
			6.1.3 Molten salt processes
			6.1.4 Underground gasification
			6.1.5 Gasifiers
		6.2 Liquefaction processes
			6.2.1 Pyrolysis processes
			6.2.2 Solvent extraction processes
			6.2.3 Catalytic liquefaction processes
			6.2.4 Indirect liquefaction processes
			6.2.5 Reactors
		6.3 Gaseous hydrocarbon products
			6.3.1 Low-Btu gas
			6.3.2 Medium-Btu gas
			6.3.3 High-Btu gas
		6.4 Liquid hydrocarbon products
		6.5 Solid hydrocarbon products
	References
	Further reading
6. Hydrocarbons from oil shale
	1. Introduction
	2. History
	3. Origin
	4. Occurrence
	5. Oil shale types
		5.1 Terrestrial oil shale
		5.2 Lacustrine oil shale
		5.3 Marine oil shale
	6. Composition and properties
		6.1 General properties
		6.2 Oil shale grade
		6.3 Mineral components
		6.4 Thermal decomposition
		6.5 Porosity
		6.6 Permeability
		6.7 Compressive strength
		6.8 Thermal conductivity
	7. Kerogen
	8. Hydrocarbon products
		8.1 Mining and retorting
		8.2 In situ technologies
		8.3 Refining shale oil
	References
	Further reading
7. Hydrocarbons from biomass
	1. Introduction
	2. Biomass feedstocks
		2.1 Carbohydrates
		2.2 Vegetable oils
		2.3 Plant fibers
		2.4 Waste
	3. Hydrocarbons from biomass
		3.1 Isoprenoid hydrocarbons
		3.2 Waxes
		3.3 Essential oils
		3.4 Terpenes
		3.5 Steroids
	4. Production of Hydrocarbons by conversion
		4.1 Hydrocarbons from wood
		4.2 Hydrocarbons via methanol and ethanol
			4.2.1 Hydrocarbons from ethanol
		4.3 Hydrocarbon from nonwoody plants
		4.4 Hydrocarbons by anaerobic digestion
		4.5 Hydrocarbons via synthesis gas
		4.6 Biorefining
			4.6.1 Pyrolysis
			4.6.2 Gasification
		4.7 Biochemical conversion
	References
	Further reading
8. Hydrocarbons from synthesis gas
	1. Introduction
	2. Coal gasification
		2.1 Chemistry
		2.2 Processes
		2.3 Gasifiers
	3. Gasification of crude oil fractions
		3.1 Feedstocks
		3.2 Chemistry
		3.3 Commercial processes
			3.3.1 Heavy residue gasification
			3.3.2 Hybrid gasification process
			3.3.3 Hydrocarbon gasification
			3.3.4 Hypro process
			3.3.5 Pyrolysis processes
			3.3.6 Shell gasification process
			3.3.7 Steam-methane reforming
			3.3.8 Steam-naphtha reforming
			3.3.9 Texaco gasification process
		3.4 Synthesis gas generation
	4. Gasification of other feedstocks
	5. Fischer-Tropsch process
		5.1 Chemistry
		5.2 Catalysts
		5.3 Reactors
		5.4 Process parameters
		5.5 Refining Fischer-Tropsch products
	References
	Further reading
9. Chemical and physical properties of hydrocarbons
	1. Introduction
	2. Stereochemistry
	3. Molecular weight
	4. Chemical properties
	5. Physical properties
		5.1 Boiling point
		5.2 Cloud point and pour point
		5.3 Density and specific gravity
		5.4 Dew point
		5.5 Flash point and ignition temperature
		5.6 Melting point
		5.7 Vapor density
		5.8 Use of the data
	References
	Further reading
10. Combustion of hydrocarbons
	1. Introduction
	2. Combustion chemistry
		2.1 General principles
		2.2 Slow combustion
		2.3 Rapid combustion
		2.4 Complete and incomplete combustion
		2.5 Spontaneous combustion
	3. Process parameters
		3.1 Air-hydrocarbon ratio
		3.2 Equivalence ratio
	4. Combustion of hydrocarbons
		4.1 Gaseous hydrocarbons
		4.2 Liquid hydrocarbons
		4.3 Solid hydrocarbons
		4.4 Nonhydrocarbons
			4.4.1 Fuel oil
			4.4.2 Coal
		4.5 Formation of particulate matter
		4.6 Char and coke
		4.7 Soot
	References
11. Reactions of hydrocarbons
	1. Introduction
	2. Thermal reactions
		2.1 Thermal decomposition
		2.2 Steam cracking
		2.3 Thermal reforming
	3. Catalytic decomposition
		3.1 Fluid catalytic cracking
		3.2 Hydrocracking
		3.3 Catalytic reforming
	4. Hydrogenation
	5. Dehydrogenation
	6. Dehydrocyclization
	7. Chemical reactions
		7.1 Alkylation
		7.2 Halogenation
		7.3 Hydration
		7.4 Oxidation
		7.5 Polymerization
		7.6 Rearrangement
		7.7 Substitution
	References
12. Petrochemicals
	1. Introduction
	2. Chemicals from paraffin hydrocarbons
		2.1 Alkylation, transalkylation, and dealkylation
		2.2 Halogenation
		2.3 Nitration
		2.4 Oxidation
		2.5 Thermolysis
	3. Chemicals from olefin hydrocarbons
		3.1 Ester formation
		3.2 Halogenation
		3.3 Hydroxylation
		3.4 Oxidation
		3.5 Polymerization
	4. Chemicals from aromatic hydrocarbons
	5. Chemicals from acetylene
	6. Chemicals from natural gas
	7. Chemicals from synthesis gas
	References
13. Pharmaceuticals
	1. Introduction
	2. History
	3. Hydrocarbon pharmaceuticals
		3.1 Mineral oil
		3.2 Paraffin oil
		3.3 Petroleum jelly
		3.4 Paraffin wax
		3.5 Steroids
		3.6 Carotenoids and vitamins
			3.6.1 Hydrocarbon carotenoids
			3.6.2 Nonhydrocarbon carotenoids
	4. Pharmaceuticals based on hydrocarbons
		4.1 Acetaminophen
		4.2 Aleve
		4.3 Aspirin
		4.4 Cepacol
		4.5 Ibuprofen
		4.6 Kaopectate
		4.7 Tylenol
	References
	Further reading
14. Monomers, polymers, and plastics
	1. Introduction
	2. Polymerization
	3. Polymers
		3.1 Chain length
		3.2 Copolymers
		3.3 Glass transition temperature
		3.4 Molecular weight
		3.5 Phase separation
		3.6 Polymer degradation
		3.7 Properties
		3.8 Repeat unit placement
		3.9 Structure
	4. Plastics
		4.1 Classification
		4.2 Chemical structure
		4.3 Properties
			4.3.1 Chemical properties
			4.3.2 Electrical properties
			4.3.3 Mechanical properties
			4.3.4 Optical properties
	5. Synthetic rubber
		5.1 Butyl rubber
		5.2 Ethylene propylene rubber
		5.3 Nitrile rubber
		5.4 Polychloroprene
		5.5 Polyisoprene
		5.6 Styrene-butadiene rubber
	6. Thermosetting plastics
		6.1 Amino resins
		6.2 Epoxy resins
		6.3 Phenolformaldehyde resins
		6.4 Polycyanurates
		6.5 Polyurethanes
		6.6 Unsaturated polyesters
	7. Synthetic fibers
		7.1 Acrylic and modacrylic fibers
		7.2 Graphite fibers
		7.3 Polyamides
		7.4 Polyester fibers
		7.5 Polypropylene fibers
	References
15. Hydrocarbons in the environment
	1. Introduction
	2. Release into the environment
		2.1 Dispersion
		2.2 Dissolution
		2.3 Emulsification
		2.4 Evaporation
		2.5 Leaching
		2.6 Sedimentation or adsorption
		2.7 Spreading
		2.8 Wind
	3. Biodegradation
		3.1 Specific constituents
			3.1.1 Alkanes
			3.1.2 Aromatic hydrocarbons
			3.1.3 Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
		3.2 Effects of biodegradation
		3.3 Effect of weathering
	4. Analysis of hydrocarbons in the environment
		4.1 Environmental samples
			4.1.1 Air
			4.1.2 Soils and sediments
			4.1.3 Water and wastewater
		4.2 Semi- and nonvolatile hydrocarbons
	5. Toxicity hazards
		5.1 Lower boiling hydrocarbons
		5.2 Higher boiling hydrocarbons
		5.3 Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
	6. Remediation of hydrocarbon spills
	References
	Further reading
Conversion Factors
	1 General
	2 Concentration Conversions
	3 Weight Conversion
	4 Temperature Conversions
	5 Area
	6 Other Approximations
Glossary
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	X
	Y
	Z
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