Handbook of Halophytes: From Molecules to Ecosystems towards Biosaline Agriculture

Preface
Contents
About the Editor
Section Editors
Contributors
Section I: Conceptual Approach to Halophytes
	Definition and Classification of Halophytes as an Ecological Group of Plants
		1 Introduction
		2 Definition of Halophytes
		3 Halophytes and Glycophytes
		4 Classification of Halophytes
		5 What Is an ``Obligatory´´ Halophyte?
		6 Physiological Drought of Soil and the Position of Halophytes Within Ecological Groups of Plants
		7 Conclusion
		References
	A Botanical History of Halophytes: From Theophrastus to Nowadays
		1 Introduction
		2 A Historical and Semantic Evolution of Terms
		3 First Mentions on Halophytes: Fascination for Mangroves
		4 Fascination for Kali and Salicornia and Other Halophytes
		5 Halophytes in the Enlightenment
		6 Concluding Remarks
		References
	Fighting with Salt-Affected Areas
		1 Introduction
		2 Early Mentions on Salt Marshes (Salt-Affected Areas - `Sărături`) in Romania
		3 Salt-Affected Areas (``Sărături´´) into Scientific Attention
		4 Salt-Affected Areas (``Sărături´´) Were Officially Introduced in Agriculture Policy by Romanian Communist Party
		5 Scientific Fight with Salt-Affected Areas
		6 Dealing with Secondary Salinization of Soils
		7 Final Considerations on Biosaline Agriculture in Romania
		8 Present and Perspectives
		9 Conclusion
		References
Section II: Halophyte Distribution, Taxonomical Diversity, Flora, and Vegetation
	Biodiversity of Halophytes of the Arctic Zone: Circumpolar
		1 Introduction
		2 General Description of the Arctic Coastal Zone
		3 Taxonomy, Ecology, and Distribution of Coastal Species
		4 Structure and Features of the Existence of Marine Communities on the Shores of the Arctic Seas of Russia
		5 Conclusion
		References
	Halophytes: A Glimpse of Indian Sundarbans - A World Heritage Site, Its Existing Status, and Sustainability
		1 Introduction
		2 Significance of Mangrove Vegetation: Global Scenario
		3 Indian Perspective
		4 Threats and Loss of Mangrove Vegetation
		5 Sundarbans Scenario
		6 Differential Adaptability of Mangrove Species and Threats Toward Sustainability in Indian Sundarbans
			6.1 Anatomical Validation
			6.2 Physiological and Biochemical Validation
			6.3 Genetic Polymorphism and Sustainability
		7 Conclusion
		References
	Coastal Salt Marshes
		1 Introduction
		2 Development and Maintenance of Coastal Salt Marshes
			2.1 Relative Sea Level and Sediment Availability
			2.2 Sedimentation, Erosion, and Vegetation Dynamics
			2.3 Freshwater Input
		3 Salt Marsh Ecological Services and Major Threats
		4 Coastal Salt Marsh Vegetation
			4.1 Zonation
			4.2 Development and Structure
			4.3 Function
		5 Classification of European Coastal Salt Marsh Vegetation
		6 Conclusions
		References
	Halophytic Vegetation in Bulgaria
		1 Introduction
		2 Results
		3 Euhalophytic Vegetation
		4 Subhalophytic Vegetation
		5 Conclusions
		6 Syntaxonomic Scheme of Euhalophytic and Subhalophytic Vegetation in Bulgaria
		References
	An Ecological Overview of Halophytes from Arid Inland Environments of Argentina
		1 Introduction
		2 Main Environmental Features and Processes of the Inland Saline Ecosystem
			2.1 Salinas de Ambargasta
			2.2 Pipanaco Salar
		3 Main Halophytic Vegetation Features
		4 Main Pedo-Geomorphic Relationships and Their Associated Vegetation
			4.1 Salinas de Ambargasta
			4.2 Pipanaco Salar
		5 Conclusions
		References
	Halophytic Vegetation in the Pannonian Basin: Origin, Syntaxonomy, Threat, and Conservation
		1 Introduction
		2 Origin and Distribution
		3 Syntaxonomy
			3.1 Class Therosalicornietea Tx. in Tx. et Oberd. 1958
				3.1.1 Alliance Salicornion prostratae Géhu 1992
					Pannonian Vegetation of Annual Succulent Halophytes on Solonchak Soils in Temporarily Wet Inland Salt Pans
						Salicornietum prostratae Soó 1947 Corr. 1967
						Salsoletum sodae Slavnić 1948
						Suaedetum pannonicae (Soó 1933) Wendelberger 1943
						Spergulario marginatae-Suaedetum prostratae Vicherek in Moravec et al. 1995
			3.2 Class Crypsietea aculeatae Vicherek 1973
				3.2.1 Alliance Cypero-Spergularion salinae Slavnić 1948
					Pioneer Ephemeral Dwarf-Grass Vegetation in Periodically Flooded Saline Habitats of Subcontinental Central and Eastern Europe
						Crypsietum aculeatae Wenzl 1934
						Heleochloëtum schoenoidis Topa 1939
						Chenopodietum chenopodioidis Dítě et al. 2017
						Chenopodio chenopodioidis-Atriplicetum prostratae Slavnić 1948 Corr. Gutermann and Mucina 1993
						Cyperetum pannonici Wendelberger 1943
			3.3 Class Festuco-Puccinellietea Soó ex Vicherek 1973
				3.3.1 Alliance Puccinellion limosae Soó 1933
					Pannonian Hypersaline Open Grasslands on Solonetz Soils
						Camphorosmetum annuae Soó 1930
						Plantagini tenuiflorae-Pholiuretum pannonici Wendelberger 1943
						Puccinellietum limosae Soó 1933
						Matricario-Plantaginetum tenuiflorae (Soó 1933) Borhidi 1996
						Hordeetum hystricis Wendelberger 1950
						Bassietum sedoidis Ubrizsy 1948 Corr. Soó 1964
						Chenopodio-Puccinellietum limosae Soó 1947
						Lepidietum crassifolii Wenzl 1934
				3.3.2 Alliance Festucion pseudovinae Soó 1933
					Artemisio santonici-Festucetum pseudovinae Soó 1947
					Limonio gmelini-Artemisietum santonici (Soó 1927) Topa 1939
					Achilleo setaceae-Festucetum pseudovinae Soó 1947
					Centaureo pannonicae-Festucetum pseudovinae Klika et Vlach 1937
				3.3.3 Alliance Peucedano officinalis-Asterion sedifolii Borhidi 1996
					Pannonian Tall-Forb Rich Subsaline Meadows on Calcareous Loess Soils
						Peucedano-Asteretum sedifolii Soó 1947 Corr. Borhidi 1996
			3.4 Class Scorzonero-Juncetea gerardii (Vicherek 1973) Golub et al. 2001
				3.4.1 Alliance Juncion gerardii Wendelberger 1943
					Wet Subsaline Regularly Inundated Meadows and Pastures of Southeastern Central Europe
						Scorzonero parviflorae-Juncetum gerardii Wendelberger 1943
						Agrostio stoloniferae-Caricetum distantis Soó 1939
						Caricetum divisae Slavnić 1948
						Loto tenuis-Potentilletum anserinae Vicherek 1973
				3.4.2 Alliance Beckmannion eruciformis Soó 1933
					Wet Subsaline Regularly Inundated Meadows on Heavy Clayey Soils of the Pannonian Basin
						Agrostio stoloniferae-Alopecuretum pratensis Soó 1933 Corr. Borhidi 2003
						Agrostio stoloniferae-Beckmannietum eruciformis Rapaics ex Soó 1930 Corr. Borhidi 2010
						Agrostis stolonifera-Glycerietum pedicellatae Magyar ex Soó 1933 Corr. Borhidi 2003
						Eleocharito palustris-Alopecuretum geniculati (Ujvrosi 1937) Soó 1947
						Rorippo-Ranunculetum lateriflori (Soó 1947) Borhidi 1996
		4 Threats of Salt Vegetation: Past and Present
			4.1 From Mammoths Toward to Intensively Cultivated Fields
			4.2 Human Activities and Succession of Halophytic Vegetation
		5 Conservation and Management
		6 Conclusion
		References
	Mediterranean Halophytic Flora and Vegetation in the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal)
		1 Introduction
		2 Types of Halophytic Vegetation
			2.1 Aquatic Vegetation
			2.2 Therophyte Salt-Pastures
			2.3 Perennial Salt-Meadows
			2.4 Scrubs
			2.5 Riparian Groves and Shrublands
		3 Areas of the Iberian Peninsula with Halophytic Flora and Vegetation
			3.1 The Atlantic coast
			3.2 The Mediterranean coast
			3.3 The Central Zone
				3.3.1 The Duero Basin
				3.3.2 The Ebro depression
				3.3.3 La Mancha
			3.4 Interior Andalusia
				3.4.1 The Guadalquivir depression
				3.4.2 Depressions of the Guadiana Menor and Granada
			3.5 The Semiarid Southeast
		4 Halophytic Habitats in the European Union
		5 Iberian Halophytic Flora
		Appendix I. Updated Syntaxonomical Scheme of Mediterranean Halophytic Vegetation in the Iberian Peninsula
		Appendix II. Halophytic Flora in the Mediterranean Iberian Peninsula
		References
	Armeria maritima (Mill.) Willd. in Romania´s Flora
		1 Introduction
		2 Material and Methods
			2.1 Study Area and Sampling Design
		3 Results and Discussion
			3.1 Results
			3.2 Discussion
				3.2.1 Armeria maritima (Mill.) Willd
				3.2.2 Armeria maritima subsp. purpurea (W. D. J. Koch) Á. Löve and D. Löve
				3.2.3 Armeria maritima subsp. elongata (Hoffm.) Bonnier
				3.2.4 Armeria pocutica Pawł. (A. elongata auct. rom., non (Hoffm.) K. Koch)
		4 Ecology
		5 Distribution Area of the Species in Romania
		6 Vulnerability
		7 Sozology
		8 Conclusions
		References
	An Ecological Overview of Halophytes from the Aralkum Area
		1 Introduction
		2 Geography and Geological History of the Aral Sea Basin
		3 Recent History and Agriculture
		4 Formation and Dynamics of the Aralkum Desert
		5 Climate
		6 Flora and Vegetation of Aralkum
			6.1 History of Floristic Studies
			6.2 Composition of the Flora
			6.3 Life Form Spectrum
			6.4 Geographic Analysis of the Flora
		7 Halophytic Vegetation of Aralkum
			7.1 Salinity
			7.2 Vegetation Types
				7.2.1 Annual Vegetation
				7.2.2 Perennial Vegetation
				7.2.3 Open Salt Deserts
				7.2.4 Salt Meadows
		8 Halophyte Groups
		9 Ion Pattern
		10 Ecological Salinity Indicator Values for Plants of the Aralkum Region
		11 Conclusions
		References
	An Ecological Overview of Halophytes in Inland Areas of Central Europe
		1 Introduction
		2 Inland Salt-Tolerant Species
		3 Inland Salt Marsh Plant Associations
		4 Inland Salt Marsh Habitats
		5 Conclusions
		References
	A Tentative List of Romanian Halophytes: Taxonomy, Distribution, and Ecology
		1 Introduction
		2 Dealing with a List of Salt-Tolerant Plants: Challenges, Limitations, and Difficulties
		3 Criteria for Selecting Salt-Tolerant Species and Including Them in the Actual List
		4 What Is Included in the List
		5 Abbreviations in the Text
		6 List of Romanian Salt-Tolerant Plants
			6.1 Ranunculaceae
				6.1.1 Myosurus minimus L.
				6.1.2 Ranunculus pedatus Waldst. & Kit.
				6.1.3 Ranunculus lateriflorus DC.
				6.1.4 Ranunculus polyphyllus Waldst. & Kit. ex Willd.
			6.2 Caryophyllaceae
				6.2.1 Sagina maritima G.Don.
				6.2.2 Cerastium dubium (Bast.) Guépin
				6.2.3 Gypsophila muralis L.
				6.2.4 Gypsophila perfoliata L.
				6.2.5 Silene multiflora (Ehrh.) Pers.
				6.2.6 Spergularia media (L.) C. Presl
				6.2.7 Spergularia salina J. et C. Presl.
			6.3 Chenopodiaceae
				6.3.1 Chenopodium glaucum L.
				6.3.2 Chenopodium urbicum L.
				6.3.3 Chenopodium rubrum L.
				6.3.4 Chenopodium chenopodioides (L.) Aellen
				6.3.5 Chenopodium polyspermum L.
				6.3.6 Atriplex rosea L.
				6.3.7 Atriplex littoralis L.
				6.3.8 Atriplex prostrata Boucher ex DC.
				6.3.9 Atriplex tatarica L.
				6.3.10 Halimione pedunculata (L.) Aellen
				6.3.11 Halimione verrucifera (M. Bieb.) Aellen
				6.3.12 Krascheninnikovia ceratoides (L.) Gueldenst.
				6.3.13 Camphorosma annua Pall.
				6.3.14 Camphorosma monspeliaca L.
				6.3.15 Bassia prostrata (L.) G. Beck
				6.3.16 Bassia hirsuta (L.) Asch.
				6.3.17 Bassia sedoides (Pall.) Asch.
				6.3.18 Halocnemum strobilaceum (Pall.) M. Bieb.
				6.3.19 Salicornia procumbens Sm.
				6.3.20 Salicornia ramosissima Woods
				6.3.21 Salicornia europaea L.
				6.3.22 Petrosimonia triandra (Pall.) Simonk.
				6.3.23 Petrosimonia oppositifolia (Pall.) Litv.
				6.3.24 ?Suaeda altissima (L.) Pall.
				6.3.25 Suaeda splendens (Pourr.) Gren. et Godr.
				6.3.26 Suaeda maritima (L.) Dumort.
				6.3.27 Suaeda maritima ssp. pannonica (Beck) Soó ex P.W. Ball
				6.3.28 Suaeda salsa (L.) Pall.
				6.3.29 Suaeda confusa Iljin
				6.3.30 Salsola kali L.
				6.3.31 Salsola soda L.
			6.4 Polygonaceae
				6.4.1 Polygonum aviculare L.
				6.4.2 Polygonum maritimum L.
				6.4.3 Polygonum patulum M. Bieb.
				6.4.4 Rumex stenophyllus Ledeb.
				6.4.5 Rumex maritimus L.
			6.5 Plumbaginaceae
				6.5.1 ?Armeria maritima (Mill.) Willd.
				6.5.2 Limonium bellidifolium (Gouan) Dumort.
				6.5.3 Limonium tomentellum (Boiss.) Kuntze
				6.5.4 Limonium gmelinii (Willd.) O. Kuntze
				6.5.5 Limonium meyeri (Boiss.) O. Kuntze
				6.5.6 Limonium vulgare Mill
				6.5.7 Goniolimon tataricum (L.) Boiss
			6.6 Fabaceae
				6.6.1 Trigonella procumbens (Besser) Rchb.
				6.6.2 Melilotus dentata (Waldst. et Kit.) Pers.
				6.6.3 Melilotus altissima Thuill.
				6.6.4 Trifolium micranthum Viv.
				6.6.5 Trifolium fragiferum L.
				6.6.6 Trifolium resupinatum L.
				6.6.7 Trifolium ornithopodioides Oeder.
				6.6.8 Trifolium strictum L.
				6.6.9 Trifolium retusum L.
				6.6.10 Trifolium angulatum Waldst. et. Kit.
				6.6.11 Trifolium subterraneum L.
				6.6.12 Lotus angustissimus L.
				6.6.13 Lotus tenuis Waldst. et Kit. ex Willd.
				6.6.14 Tetragonolobus maritimus (L.) Roth.
			6.7 Lythraceae
				6.7.1 Lythrum hyssopifolia L.
			6.8 Santalaceae
				6.8.1 Thesium arvense Horv.
			6.9 Elaeagnaceae
				6.9.1 Hippophaë rhamnoides L.
			6.10 Euphorbiaceae
				6.10.1 Euphorbia paralias L.
				6.10.2 Euphorbia peplis L.
			6.11 Zygophyllaceae
				6.11.1 Zygophyllum fabago L.
				6.11.2 Nitraria schoberi L.
			6.12 Geraniaceae
				6.12.1 Geranium collinum Stephan
			6.13 Apiaceae
				6.13.1 Eryngium maritimum L.
				6.13.2 Bupleurum tenuissimum L.
				6.13.3 Apium graveolens L.
				6.13.4 Silaum silaus (L.) Schinz et Thell.
				6.13.5 Peucedanum latifolium (M. Bieb.) DC.
				6.13.6 Palimbia rediviva (Pall.) Thell.
			6.14 Tamaricaceae
				6.14.1 Tamarix ramosissima Ledeb.
			6.15 Frankeniaceae
				6.15.1 Frankenia pulverulenta L.
				6.15.2 Frankenia hirsuta L.
			6.16 Brassicaceae
				6.16.1 Euclidium syriacum (L.) W. T Aiton.
				6.16.2 Erysimum repandum L.
				6.16.3 Rorippa austriaca (Crantz) Besser
				6.16.4 Cardamine parviflora L.
				6.16.5 Hymenolobus procumbens (L.) Nutt. ex Torr. et Gray
				6.16.6 Lepidium crassifolium Waldst. et Kit.
				6.16.7 Lepidium perfoliatum L.
				6.16.8 Lepidium latifolium L.
				6.16.9 Lepidium ruderale L.
				6.16.10 Coronopus squamatus (Forssk.) Asch.
				6.16.11 Cakile maritima Scop. ssp. euxina (Pobed.) Nyr.
				6.16.12 Crambe maritima L.
			6.17 Primulaceae
				6.17.1 Glaux maritima L.
				6.17.2 Anagallis arvensis L.
				6.17.3 Samolus valerandi L.
			6.18 Gentianaceae
				6.18.1 Blackstonia acuminata (W. D. J. Koch et Ziz) Domin
				6.18.2 Centaurium spicatum (L.) Fritsch
				6.18.3 Centaurium pulchellum (Sw.) Druce
				6.18.4 Centaurium littorale (Turner) Gilmour ssp. uliginosum (Waldst. et Kit.) Melderis
			6.19 Apocynaceae
				6.19.1 Trachomitum venetum (L.) Woodson
			6.20 Boraginaceae
				6.20.1 Argusia sibirica (L.) Dandy
				6.20.2 Heliotropium curassavicum L.
				6.20.3 Heliotropium supinum L.
			6.21 Verbenaceae
				6.21.1 Verbena supina L.
			6.22 Plantaginaceae
				6.22.1 Plantago coronopus L.
				6.22.2 Plantago maritima L.
				6.22.3 Plantago tenuiflora Waldst. et Kit.
				6.22.4 Plantago schwarzenbergiana Schur
				6.22.5 Plantago cornuti Gouan
			6.23 Scrophulariaceae
				6.23.1 Veronica acinifolia L.
			6.24 Asteraceae (Compositae)
				6.24.1 Aster oleifolius (Lam.) Wagenitz
				6.24.2 Aster sedifolius L.
				6.24.3 Aster canus Waldst. et Kit.
				6.24.4 Aster tripolium L.
				6.24.5 Brachyactis ciliata (Ledeb.) Ledeb.
				6.24.6 Inula britannica L.
				6.24.7 Achillea asplenifolia Vent.
				6.24.8 Matricaria recutita L.
				6.24.9 Matricaria perforata Mérat
				6.24.10 Artemisia santonica L.
				6.24.11 Petasites spurius (Retz.) Rchb.
				6.24.12 Cirsium brachycephalum Juratzka
				6.24.13 Cirsium alatum (S. G. Gmel.) Bobrov
				6.24.14 Serratula bulgarica Acht. et Stoj.
				6.24.15 Stemmacantha serratuloides (Georgi) M. Dittrich
				6.24.16 Centaurea pontica Prod. et Nyr
				6.24.17 Scorzonera cana (C. A. Mey.) Hoffm.
				6.24.18 Scorzonera laciniata L.
				6.24.19 Scorzonera parviflora Jacq.
				6.24.20 Taraxacum bessarabicum (Hornem.) Hand. - Mazz.
				6.24.21 Lactuca tatarica (L.) C. A. Mey.
				6.24.22 Lactuca saligna L.
			6.25 Juncaginaceae
				6.25.1 Triglochin maritima L.
				6.25.2 Triglochin palustris L.
			6.26 Potamogetonaceae
				6.26.1 Potamogeton pusillus L. em. Fieber
			6.27 Ruppiaceae
				6.27.1 Ruppia cirrhosa (Petagna) Grande
				6.27.2 Ruppia maritima L.
			6.28 Najadaceae
				6.28.1 Najas marina L.
				6.28.2 Najas minor All.
			6.29 Zannichelliaceae
				6.29.1 Zannichellia palustris L.
			6.30 Zosteraceae
				6.30.1 Zostera marina L.
				6.30.2 Zostera noltii Hornem.
			6.31 Liliaceae
				6.31.1 Scilla autumnalis L.
				6.31.2 Asparagus brachyphyllus Turcz.
				6.31.3 Allium vineale L.
				6.31.4 Allium paniculatum L.
			6.32 Iridaceae
				6.32.1 Iris spuria L.
				6.32.2 Iris halophila Pall.
			6.33 Juncaceae
				6.33.1 Juncus acutus L.
				6.33.2 Juncus bufonius L.
				6.33.3 Juncus compressus Jacq.
				6.33.4 Juncus gerardi Loisel.
				6.33.5 Juncus maritimus Lam.
				6.33.6 Juncus littoralis C.A. Mey.
			6.34 Cyperaceae
				6.34.1 Schoenoplectus littoralis (Schrad.) Palla
				6.34.2 Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani (C.C. Gmel.) Palla
				6.34.3 Bolboschoenus maritimus (L.) Palla
				6.34.4 Scirpoides holoschoenus (L.) Sojk
				6.34.5 Eleocharis uniglumis (Link) Schult.
				6.34.6 Eleocharis parvula (Roem. et Schult.) Link ex Bluff, Ness et Schauer
				6.34.7 Cyperus pannonicus Jacq.
				6.34.8 Carex stenophylla Wahlenb.
				6.34.9 Carex divisa Huds.
				6.34.10 Carex hordeistichos Vill.
				6.34.11 Carex secalina Willd. ex Wahlenb.
				6.34.12 Carex melanostachya Willd.
				6.34.13 Carex extensa Gooden.
				6.34.14 Carex distans L.
				6.34.15 Carex vulpina L.
				6.34.16 Carex otrubae Podp.
			6.35 Poaceae
				6.35.1 Festuca pulchra Schur
				6.35.2 Lolium rigidum Gaudin ssp. lepturoides (Boiss.) Sennen & Mauricio
				6.35.3 Puccinellia distans (L.) Parl.
				6.35.4 Puccinellia limosa (Schur) Holmb.
				6.35.5 Puccinellia convoluta (Hornem.) Hayek
				6.35.6 Puccinellia intermedia (Schur) Holmb
				6.35.7 Puccinellia gigantea (Grossh.) Grossh.
				6.35.8 Beckmannia eruciformis (L.) Host
				6.35.9 Leymus sabulosus (M. Bieb.) Tzvelev
				6.35.10 Elymus elongatus (Host) Runemark
				6.35.11 Elymus farctus (Viv.) Runemark ex Melderis
				6.35.12 Elymus athericus (Link) Kerguélen
				6.35.13 Agropyron orientale (L.) Roem. et Schult.
				6.35.14 Hordeum geniculatum All.
				6.35.15 Hordeum marinum Huds.
				6.35.16 Hordeum jubatum L.
				6.35.17 Hordeum secalinum Schreb.
				6.35.18 Hordeum murinum L.
				6.35.19 Pholiurus pannonicus (Host) Trin.
				6.35.20 Parapholis incurva (L.) C. E. Hubb.
				6.35.21 Molinia caerulea (L.) Moench
				6.35.22 Aeluropus littoralis (Gouan) Parl.
				6.35.23 Eragrostis pilosa (L.) Beauv
				6.35.24 Polypogon monspeliensis (L.) Desf.
				6.35.25 Alopecurus arundinaceus Poir.
				6.35.26 Alopecurus geniculatus L.
				6.35.27 Crypsis aculeata (L.) Aiton
				6.35.28 Crypsis alopecuroides (Piller et Mitterp.) Schrad.
				6.35.29 Crypsis schoenoides (L.) Lam.
				6.35.30 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.
				6.35.31 Apera spica-venti (L.) Beauv.
		7 Concluding Remarks
		References
	Invasive Alien Flora on Coastal Mediterranean Habitats
		1 Introduction
		2 The Mediterranean Basin
		3 Coastal Saline Habitats in the Mediterranean Basin
		4 Salt Tolerance in Plants: Halophytes
		5 Basic Terminology Related to Biological Invasions and Alien Species
		6 Characterization of Invasive Plants in Mediterranean Coastal Habitats
			6.1 Plant Adaptations in the Mediterranean Coastal Habitats
			6.2 Germination Strategies
			6.3 Invaded Habitats by Alien Species
		7 Conclusions
		References
	Competition Between Halophytes and Invasive Species
		1 Introduction
		2 The Albufera Natural Park in the Context of the Mediterranean Basin Biodiversity Hotspot
		3 Salt Marshes (``Mallades´´) as Priority Habitats in the Valencian Community
		4 Invasive Species in the Study Area
		5 Coexistence of Dittrichia viscosa and Limbarda crithmoides in Salt Marshes
			5.1 Overview of Previous Study
			5.2 Plots Description
			5.3 Outstanding Results
		6 Conclusions
		References
	Littoral Salt Marshes on the Eastern Coast of the Iberian Peninsula
		1 Introduction
		2 Seed and Germination Strategies Linked with Salinity
		3 Anatomical Adaptations Linked with Salinity
			3.1 Classification of Halophytes in Accordance with Anatomical Adaptations Linked with Salinity
			3.2 Anatomical Adaptations Observed in Halophytes Growing in Salt Marshes on the Eastern Coast of the Iberian Peninsula
		4 Structure and Composition of Salt Marsh Plant Communities
			4.1 Sarcocornietalia Fruticosae
			4.2 Halocnemetalia Cruciati
			4.3 Limonietalia
		5 Phylogeographical Patterns of East-Iberian Salt Marsh Plants in the Coastal Halophytes Context
			5.1 Quaternary Glaciations
			5.2 Barriers and Corridors
			5.3 Habitat Fragmentation
			5.4 Biological Factors
		6 Conservation Strategies
		7 In Situ Conservation
		8 Ex Situ Conservation
		References
	Endangered Halophytes and Their Conservation
		1 Introduction
		2 Conservation of Halophytes: Facts and Experiences in Eastern Spain
			2.1 Area of Study: Salt-Affected Habitats in the Valencian Community (Spain)
			2.2 The Plants Living in the Valencian Salt-Affected Habitats: The Outstanding Case of the Genus Limonium
			2.3 Endangered Halophytes: The Valencian Limonium Species and Their Distribution
			2.4 Plant Conservation Framework in the Valencian Community
			2.5 Conservation Actions
			2.6 The Plant Micro-Reserves (PMR) Network and Its Application to Salt-Affected Habitats
		3 Conclusions: Future Challenges and Dilemmas
		References
	Spartina Genus in the Valencian littoral (Spain)
		1 Introduction
		2 Results
			2.1 Distribution in the Valencian Community of S. patens
			2.2 Soil Conductivity and Moisture Factors in S. patens Populations
			2.3 Inventories
		3 Localities
			3.1 Conservation
		4 Conclusions
		References
	Management and Ecosystem Services of Halophytic Vegetation
		1 Introduction
		2 Ecosystem Services of Saline Habitats
			2.1 Provisioning Services of Halophytic Vegetation
				2.1.1 Halophytes as Food and Fodder
				2.1.2 Cash Crop Halophytes
				2.1.3 Nutritional Lipids from Halophytes
				2.1.4 Halophytic Species as Sources of Biodiesel
				2.1.5 Halophytes as Source of Bioactive Compounds
				2.1.6 Other Provisioning Services
			2.2 Regulating Services of Halophytic Vegetation
				2.2.1 Water Resources Regulation
				2.2.2 Flooding Tolerance in Halophytes
				2.2.3 Carbon Sequestration
				2.2.4 Climate Change and Impacts on Saline Ecosystems
				2.2.5 Storm Protection
			2.3 Cultural Services
		3 Sustainable Use and Management
			3.1 Main Threats to Halophytic Ecosystems
				3.1.1 Natural Factors Linked with Indirect Human Activities
				3.1.2 Human Impacts on Saline Habitats
				3.1.3 Agricultural Activities´ Impact on Saline Habitats
			3.2 Biological Disturbances
			3.3 Sustainable Management of Saline Habitats in Relation to Ecosystem Services
		4 Recommendations/Concluding Remarks
		References
	Diversity of Halophytes and Salt Tolerant Plants at the Species-, Habitats- and High-Rank Syntaxa Level in Greece
		1 Introduction
		2 Recent Floristic Investigations in Greece
		3 Coastal Plants of Greece
		4 Rare, Threatened, and Protected Taxa
		5 Coastal Vegetation Syntaxa: Definitions and Wider Spatial Circumscription
		6 Coastal Habitat Types (Annex I, Dir. 92/43/EEC)
		7 Ecosystem Services
		8 Climate Change and Food Security
		9 Conclusion
		References
	Overview of Halophytes in Sudan and the Horn of Africa
		1 Introduction
			1.1 Background Information
			1.2 Study Area
		2 Objectives
		3 Methods
		4 Findings and Discussion
			4.1 Challenges and Constraints
			4.2 Financial Constraints
			4.3 Political Instability
			4.4 Poor Documentation and Data Collection Mechanisms
			4.5 Inadequate Technological Resources and Technical Expertise
			4.6 Limited Research and Capacity Building Programs
			4.7 Natural and Environmental Challenges
			4.8 Poor Protective Measures and Enforcement of Environmental Legislations
		5 Conclusions
		References
	Ecosystem Services of Seagrasses
		1 Introduction
		2 The Diversity of Seagrasses
		3 The Ecosystem Role of Seagrasses
		4 Threats
		5 The Seagrass Resources
		6 The Commercial Use
		7 The Transplanting and Restoration
		8 The Protection and Legislation
		9 Conclusions
		References
	Coastal Wetlands of the White Sea
		1 Introduction
		2 Results and Discussion
			2.1 The Influence of Hydrological Conditions and Anthropogenic Impact on the Vegetation Cover of the White Sea and Its Coast
			2.2 Synopsis of the Coastal Vegetation Types
			2.3 The Spatial Structure of Vegetation in the Lagoons and Estuaries of the White Sea Rivers
		3 Conclusion
		References
	An Overview of Class Crithmo-Staticetea on the Crimean Peninsula
		1 Introduction
		2 Class Crithmo-Staticetea on the Crimean Peninsula
		3 The Syntaxon Communities of the Class Crithmo-Staticetea in Phytoindication: A Study Case of the Kerch Peninsula
		4 Partial Flora of the Crithmo-Staticetea in the Crimea
		5 Crithmum maritimum (Apiaceae) on the Crimean Coast
			5.1 The Plant Life Cycle
			5.2 The Seasonal Rhythm of Development
			5.3 Populations
			5.4 The Area of Distribution
			5.5 Phytosociology
		6 Protection, Conservation Planning, and Land Management
		7 Conclusion
		References
Section III: Structural Adaptations of Halophytes: Morphology, Anatomy, and Ultrastructure of Halophytes
	Ecology and Adaptation of Plants in Marine Coastal Ecosystems in the Context of Climate Change
		1 Introduction
		2 Abiotic Factors Determining the Zonality of Coastal Salt Marshes of the White Sea
		3 Structural Organization of Vegetation on the Seashore of the Northern Part of the Holarctic (with the Example of the White S...
			3.1 Taxonomic and Ecological and Geographical Features of Species
			3.2 A Comparative Study of the Quantitative Indicators of Plant Leaves Growing on the White Sea Coast
		4 Conclusions
		References
	Anatomical and Micromorphological Traits in Leaf Blade of Halophytes from a Brazilian Sandy Coastal Plain
		1 Introduction
		2 Leaf Anatomical Traits
			2.1 Leaf Epidermis: Common Epidermal Cells, Stomata, and Trichomes
				2.1.1 The Epidermis: Wax and Cuticle
				2.1.2 Common Epidermal Cells
				2.1.3 Stomata
				2.1.4 Trichomes
			2.2 The Mesophyll
				2.2.1 Chlorophyllous Parenchyma
				2.2.2 Plastids and Mitochondria
				2.2.3 Water-Storage Parenchyma
				2.2.4 Vascular System
		3 Conclusion
		References
	Anatomical Adaptations of Halophytes Within the Southern Pannonian Plain Region
		1 Introduction
		2 Anatomical Adaptations of Halophytes
			2.1 Halophytes Classification and Their Relation with Morphological and Anatomical Adaptations
			2.2 Succulence
			2.3 Secretory Structures
			2.4 Tracheoidioblasts
			2.5 Successive Cambia
			2.6 Kranz Anatomy
			2.7 The Xeromorphic Nature of Adaptations in Halophytes
		3 Adaptations of Halophytes in the Southern Pannonian Plain Area (Northern Serbia)
			3.1 Salicornia europaea L.
			3.2 Suaeda maritima (L.) Dumort
			3.3 Salsola soda L.
			3.4 Limonium gmelinii (Willd.) O. Kuntze
			3.5 Tripolium pannonicum (Jacq.) Dobrocz.
			3.6 Lepidium cartilagineum (J. Mayer) Thell.
			3.7 Plantago schwarzenbergiana Schur.
			3.8 Artemisia maritima L.
			3.9 Atriplex littoralis L.
			3.10 Puccinellia limosa (Schur) Holmb.
			3.11 Rorippa kerneri Menyh.
			3.12 Hordeum hystrix Roth.
			3.13 Camphorosma annua Pall.
		4 Conclusion
		References
	Adaptation of Recretohalophytes to Salinity
		1 Introduction
		2 The Structure of Salt Glands Allows Them to Collect and Excrete Ions
			2.1 Recretohalophytes Possessing Salt Glands and the Classification of Salt Glands
			2.2 Ultrastructural Features of Salt Glands Facilitate Salt Secretion
		3 Methods Used to Measure Salt Secretion
		4 A Possible Pathway of Salt Inflow into Salt Glands
			4.1 The Distribution Rules of Salt Glands Allow Them to Transport Ions Efficiently
			4.2 The Cuticle Surrounding the Salt Gland Complex Helps Prevent Ion Leakage
			4.3 Apoplastic, Symplastic, and Transmembrane Pathways Are Responsible for Ion Translocation from Leaf Veins to Secretory Cell...
		5 The Possible Salt Secretion Mechanism of Salt Glands
			5.1 Three Hypotheses to Explain Salt Secretion
			5.2 Vesicle Transport May Be the Key Pathway of Salt Secretion
			5.3 Candidate Ion Transporters Involved in Salt Secretion
			5.4 Single Salt Gland Complexes Can Be Separated
			5.5 Modern Molecular Biology Sheds Light on the Mechanism of Salt Secretion from Salt Glands
		6 The Development and Evolution of Salt Glands
			6.1 Development
			6.2 Evolution
			6.3 Candidate Genes Involved in Salt Gland Development and Evolution
		7 Conclusions and Perspectives
		8 Conflict of Interest
		References
	Coastal Lichens
		1 Introduction
		2 Freshwater Lichens
		3 Marine Lichens
		4 Adaptations of Marine Lichens
		5 Conclusion
		References
	An Overview of Ecological Anatomy of Poaceae Halophytes from Iran
		1 Introduction
		2 Halophytic Poaceae in Iran
		3 Effect of Salinity on Poaceae
		4 Anatomical Adaptation to Salinity in Poaceae
			4.1 Kranz Anatomy
			4.2 Sclerenchyma Tissue
			4.3 Vascular Bundles
			4.4 Cortex and Pith
			4.5 Bulliform Cells
			4.6 Silica Bodies
			4.7 Epicuticular Wax
			4.8 Salt Glands
		5 Conclusion
		References
	Leaf Anatomical Adaptations of Mangroves
		1 Introduction
		2 Stomata and Their Behavior
		3 Cuticle and Its Function to Reduce Water Loss
		4 Salt Gland and Salt Regulation
		5 Mesophyll and Its Functions
		6 Water Storage Tissue
		7 Cork-Warts and Internal Airflow
		8 Conclusion
		References
	Morphological and Anatomical Adaptations of Halophytes: A Review
		1 Introduction: Halophytes as an Ecological Group of Plants
		2 Review of General Morphological and Anatomical Adaptations of Halophytes
			2.1 Succulence
			2.2 Mucilage
			2.3 Cell Sap
			2.4 The Palisade Tissue
			2.5 The Intercellular Spaces
			2.6 Wax
			2.7 Tomentum
			2.8 Coriaceous and Glossy Leaves
			2.9 Stomata
			2.10 Tracheoidioblasts (Spiral Cells, Tracheids) and Mangrove Tracheids
			2.11 Stereids (Spicular Cells, Sclereids, Idioblasts)
			2.12 Lignification: The Special Case of Successive (Additional, Supernumerary) Cambia
			2.13 Salt-Secreting Structures
				2.13.1 Salt Glands of Plumbaginaceae
				2.13.2 Salt Glands of Tamaricaceae
				2.13.3 Salt Glands of Frankeniaceae
				2.13.4 Salt Glands of Mangroves
				2.13.5 Salt Glands of Halophytes from Primulaceae Family
				2.13.6 Salt Glands of Halophytes from Poaceae (Gramineae)
				2.13.7 Salt Hairs (Vezicular Hairs, Salt Bladders, Bladders) from Chenopodiaceae
				2.13.8 Epidermal Bladder Cells from Aizoaceae (Mesembryanthemaceae)
				2.13.9 Other Salt Glands (Cressa cretica, Ipomoea pes-caprae, and Lavatera arborea)
			2.14 Kranz Anatomy Structures
			2.15 Bulliform Cells
		3 Morphological and Anatomical Adaptations of Halophytes from (Nontropical) Salt-Marsh Formations
		4 Morphological and Anatomical Adaptations of Littoral (Tropical, Nontropical) Halophytes (Seashore Plants, Sea-Coastal Plants...
		5 Mangroves (Tropical Coastal Halophytes, Littoral Swamp Forest, Tidal Forest)
		6 Conclusions
		References
	Morphological Variability of Halophytes: Salicornioideae on Iberian Peninsula
		1 Introduction
		2 Vegetative Structure
			2.1 Leaves
				2.1.1 Leaf Anatomy
			2.2 Stomata
			2.3 Stem Anatomy
		3 Flower Structure
			3.1 Perianth, Androecium, and Gynoecium
			3.2 Seeds and Embryos
			3.3 Arthrocnemum Seeds
			3.4 Halocnemum Seeds
			3.5 Halopeplis Seeds
			3.6 Microcnemum Seeds
			3.7 Salicornia Seeds
			3.8 Sarcocornia Seeds
		4 General Description, Nomenclature, Habitat, Ecology, and Distribution
			4.1 Arthrocnemum Moq.
				4.1.1 Arthrocnemum macrostachyum (Moric.) K. Koch
					Habitat
					Distribution
			4.2 Halocnemum M. Bieb.
				4.2.1 Halocnemum cruciatum (Forssk.) Tod. Habitat
				4.2.2 Distribution
			4.3 Halopeplis Bunge ex Ung.-Sternb.
				4.3.1 Halopeplis (Vahl) Ung.-Sternb. ex Ces., Pass. & Gibelli
					Habitat
					Distribution
			4.4 Microcnemum Ung.-Sternb.
				4.4.1 Microcnemum coralloides (Loscos & J. Pardo) Buen
					Habitat
					Distribution
			4.5 Salicornia L., Sp. Pl.
				4.5.1 Salicornia
					Habitat
					Distribution
			4.6 Sarcocornia A. J. Scott.
				4.6.1 Sarcocornia
					Habitat
					Distribution
		5 Conclusion
		Syntaxonomical Appendix
		References
	A Comparative Account of the Morphological and Anatomical Characteristics of Three Medicinal Halophytes
		1 Introduction
		2 General Morphological Features of Plumbago
		3 Microscopic Evaluation of Lamina
		4 Stomatal Complex
		5 Stomatal Development
		6 Stomatal Density
		7 Licopoli Glands or Mettenian Glands
		8 Exo-recretohalophytes
		9 Density and Distribution of Salt Glands
		10 Structure of the Salt Gland
		11 Morphology of Roots
		12 Microscopic Evaluation of Roots of Plumbago
		13 Vessels in Plumbago
		14 Mesomorphy Ratio of Plumbago
		15 Microscopic Evaluation of Stem
		16 Calyx of the Flower
		17 Conclusion
		References
	Integrative Anatomy of Halophytes from Mediterranean Climate
		1 Introduction
		2 Halophytes Distribution within a Typical Mediterranean Salt Marsh
		3 Material and Methods for Anatomical Investigation
		4 Anatomical Strategies in Mediterranean Halophytes
			4.1 Succulence
			4.2 Successive Cambia
			4.3 Kranz Anatomy
			4.4 Salt Secretion
			4.5 Tracheoidioblasts (Tracheids, Spiral Cells), Stereids (Spicular Cells), and Sclereids
		5 Concluding Remarks
		References
	Morphological and Anatomical Traits of Halophytes
		1 Introduction
		2 Morpho-anatomical Functional Traits in Leaves of Halophytes
		3 Morpho-anatomical Functional Traits in Stems of Halophytes
		4 Conclusions
		References
Section IV: Physiology and Ecophysiology of Halophytes
	Root Growth and Structure of Growth Zone in Halophytes and Glycophytes Under Salinity
		1 Root Growth Rate without and with Salinity in Halophytes and in Glycophytes
			1.1 Root Growth Rate for Different Plant Species Is Influenced by Temperature, pH, and Physiologically Active Compounds
			1.2 Effects of Salinity on Root Growth Rate for Halophytes and Glycophytes
		2 Structure of Root Growth Zone
		3 Changes in Root Growth Zone under Salinity and Osmotic Stress for Halophytes and Glycophytes
		4 Physicochemical and Physiological Reasons for the Changes of Root Growth under Salinity and Prerequisites for Growth
			4.1 Osmotic Effects and Oxidative Stress
			4.2 Effects of Na+ on Proteins and Physiological Processes in Halophytes and Glycophytes
			4.3 Tolerable Cytoplasmic Na+ and K+ Concentrations in Halophytes Compared to Glycophytes
			4.4 Basic Prerequisites for Cell Growth
		5 General Aspects of Cell Membrane Ion Transport in the Root Growth Zone under Salinity
			5.1 Expected and Measured Electrophysiological Activities of Different Root Cells Important for Growth and Transport Processes...
			5.2 Membrane Potentials and Ion Fluxes in the Meristematic and Elongation Zones
			5.3 Membrane Potentials and Ion Fluxes in Root Elongation Zone Under Salinity for Glycophytes with Different Salt Sensitivity
			5.4 Membrane Potentials and Ion Fluxes in Root Elongation Zone under Salinity for Halophytes Compared to Glycophytes
		6 Metabolic and Molecular Adaptations to Growth under Salinity for Halophytes and Glycophytes
		7 Conclusions and Perspectives
		References
	Phenolic Acid Profile, Quercetin Content, and Antioxidant Activity of Six Brazilian Halophytes
		1 Introduction
		2 Material and Methods
			2.1 Samples
			2.2 Chemicals
			2.3 Extraction
			2.4 Determination of Phenolic Acids and Quercetin
				2.4.1 Analytical Parameters
			2.5 Evaluation of Antioxidant-Prooxidant Activities
				2.5.1 Determination of DPPH Radical Scavenging Activity
				2.5.2 Inhibition of Peroxidase Enzyme (PO) Activity
			2.6 Statistical Analyses
		3 Results and Discussion
			3.1 Phenolic Compounds
			3.2 Antioxidant-Prooxidant Activities
		4 Conclusions
		References
	Seed Germination Behavior of Halophytes Distributed in Arid Arabian Deserts
		1 Introduction
		2 Geographical Distribution of Halophytes
		3 Seed Characteristics of Halophytes
		4 Temperature and Light Requirements for Germination
		5 Seed Germination Responses to Salinity
		6 Rapid Seed Germination Strategy of Halophytes
		7 Conclusion and Outlook
		References
	Soil Respiration and Photosynthetic Carbon Gain on an Abundant Coastal Land After Plantation of Tamarix chinensis
		1 Introduction
		2 Materials and Methods
			2.1 Site Description
			2.2 Treatments
			2.3 Measurements
			2.4 Soil Sampling
			2.5 Statistical Analysis
		3 Results
			3.1 Photosynthesis
			3.2 Dynamics of Soil Respiration
				3.2.1 Difference in Soil Respiration
				3.2.2 Changes in the Components of Soil Respiration Under the Vegetation of the Test Species
				3.2.3 Changes in Soil Respiration on Abandoned Land
			3.3 Factors Affecting Soil Respiration
				3.3.1 Soil Temperature
				3.3.2 Soil Salt and Water Contents
				3.3.3 Presences of Microbes
				3.3.4 Biomass of Tamarix chinensis
			3.4 Correlations of Soil Surface Temperature with Soil Respiration
			3.5 Correlations of Soil Salt and Water Contents with Soil Respiration
		4 Discussion
			4.1 Changes in the Photosynthesis
			4.2 Changes in Factors Affecting Soil Respiration
			4.3 Correlations Between Soil Respiration and Its Influencing Factors
		5 Conclusions
		References
	Antioxidant Molecules and Enzymes and Their Relevance to the Salt Adaptation of Halophytes
		1 Introduction
		2 Antioxidant Responses of Halophytes Under Salinity
		3 Specificity of Antioxidant Responses in Halophytes
			3.1 Constitutive Antioxidant Responses
			3.2 Antioxidant Compartmentation
			3.3 Role of Nonenzymatic Antioxidant Molecules
			3.4 Alternative Antioxidant Responses in Halophytes
		4 Halophyte Sources of Antioxidant Genes to Improve the Salt Tolerance of Crop Species
		5 Conclusion
		References
	Germination Functional Traits in Seeds of Halophytes
		1 Introduction
		2 Trends in Halophyte Germination Traits
			2.1 Salinity Avoidance
			2.2 Salinity Tolerance
			2.3 Do Salt-Tolerant Non-halophytes Use the Same Tolerance Mechanisms During Germination as Halophytes?
			2.4 Environmental Cues for Germination
		3 Population-Based Models for Quantifying Germination Traits in Salinity
			3.1 Thermal, Hydro, and Hydrothermal Time Models
			3.2 Application of Population-Based Germination Models to Saline Environments
			3.3 Conclusion
		4 Future Perspectives
			4.1 Impact of Climate Change
			4.2 Application of Cutting Edge Techniques to Halophytes and Non-halophytes
		5 Conclusion
		References
	Salinity-Induced Changes in Growth Attributes, Water Relation, and Ion Flux of Subtropical Halophytes
		1 Introduction
		2 Growth
			2.1 Plant Biomass
			2.2 Plant Relative Growth Rate (RGR)
			2.3 Conclusion
		3 Osmotic Adjustment and Compatible Solutes
			3.1 Shoot Succulence and Relative Water Content
			3.2 Shoot Osmotic Potential
			3.3 Organic Osmotica
			3.4 Na+ as Cheap Osmoticum
			3.5 Conclusion
		4 Ion Relations
			4.1 Ion Concentration, Uptake, Transport, and Sequestration in Subtropical Halophytes
			4.2 Conclusion
		5 General Conclusion
		References
	Photosynthetic Adaptations and Oxidative Stress Tolerance in Halophytes from Warm Subtropical Region
		1 Introduction
		2 Effects of Salinity on Photosynthesis
		3 Photochemical Reactions: Outline and Salinity Effects
			3.1 Photochemical Reactions in Halophytes
			3.2 Photochemical Reactions in Warm Subtropical Halophytes
		4 Biochemical Reactions: Outline and Salinity Effects
			4.1 Biochemical Reactions in Halophytes
			4.2 Biochemical Reactions in Warm Subtropical Halophytes
		5 Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Homeostasis: Outline and Salinity Impacts
			5.1 Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Homeostasis at Cellular Level
			5.2 Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Homeostasis in Photosynthesizing Leaves
			5.3 Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Homeostasis in Halophytes
			5.4 Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Homeostasis in Warms Subtropical Halophytes
		6 Conclusions
		References
	Physiological Responses of Halophytes to the Combined Effects of Salinity and Phosphorus Deficiency
		1 Introduction
		2 Combined Effects of Salinity and P Availability on Plant Growth
		3 Relationships Between Salt Tolerance and P Availability
		4 Combined Effects of Salinity and P Availability on P Uptake and Transport
		5 Combined Effects of Salinity and P Availability on Photosynthesis
		6 Combined Effects of Salinity and P Availability on Water Status and Solute Accumulation
		7 Combined Effects of Salinity and P Availability on Antioxidant Capacity
		8 Combined Effects of Salinity and P Availability on Acid Phosphatase Activity
		9 Conclusions
		References
	Priming-Mediated Tolerance to Biotic and Abiotic Stresses in Halophytes
		1 Introduction
		2 Halophytes and Their Saline Biotope
			2.1 Ion Compartmentalization and Exclusion
			2.2 Succulence
			2.3 Osmotic Adjustment
			2.4 Antioxidant Systems
		3 Priming and Induction of Cross-Tolerance to Multiple Stresses in Halophytes
			3.1 Priming Improves Tolerance to Abiotic Stress
				3.1.1 Priming with Salt
				3.1.2 Priming with H2O2
				3.1.3 Priming with Nitric Oxide
				3.1.4 Other Types of Priming
			3.2 Priming Improves Tolerance to Biotic Stress
			3.3 Mechanism of Cross-Tolerance in Plants
				3.3.1 Reactive Oxygen Species and Reactive Carbonyl Species Signaling Pathways
				3.3.2 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Cascades
				3.3.3 Hormone Signaling
				3.3.4 Transcription Factors and Molecular Responses
				3.3.5 Antioxidant and Glyoxalase Systems
				3.3.6 Heat-Shock Proteins
				3.3.7 The Role of Nitric Oxide
		4 Implication of Halophytes in Crop Improvement
			4.1 Implication of Halophytes in Phytodesalination of Soil
			4.2 Implication of Halophytes in Phytoremediation
		5 Conclusions
		References
	Survival Strategies in Halophytes: Adaptation and Regulation
		1 Introduction
		2 Adaptations in Halophytes
			2.1 Reproductive Biology and Seed Dimorphism
			2.2 Vivipary
			2.3 Root Modifications
			2.4 Development of Succulent Leaves
			2.5 Ion Homeostasis and Compartmentalization
			2.6 Synthesis of Compatible Solutes (Osmolytes)
			2.7 Regulation of Photosynthesis in Halophytes
			2.8 Efficient ROS Homeostasis
			2.9 Synthesis of Polyamines
			2.10 Accumulation of Ready-Made Catabolic Products
			2.11 Hormonal Regulation
		3 Agronomic Applications of Halophytes
		4 Conclusion
		References
	Ecophysiology and Uses of Halophytes in Diverse Habitats
		1 Introduction
		2 Adaptations of Halophytes to Different Habitats
			2.1 Xerohalophyte Species
			2.2 Psammophyte Species
			2.3 Hydrohalophyte Species
		3 Conclusion
		References
	Dynamic Responses of the Halophyte Suaeda maritima to Various Levels of External NaCl Concentration
		1 Introduction
		2 Methods
			2.1 Plant Material and Growth Condition
			2.2 Treatments
			2.3 Biomass, Tissue Water Content, and Na+ and K+ Concentrations
			2.4 22Na+ Influx Experiment
			2.5 Statistical Analysis
		3 Results
			3.1 Time Course Changes of Plant Biomass of S. maritima after Salt Treatments
			3.2 Time Course Changes of Tissue Water Content of S. maritima after Salt Treatments
			3.3 Time Course Changes of Na+ Accumulation in S. maritima after Salt Treatments
			3.4 Time Course Changes of 22Na+ Influx into Excised Roots of S. maritima after Salt Treatments
			3.5 Time Course Changes of K+ Accumulation and Na+/K+ Ratio in S. maritima after Salt Treatments
		4 Discussion
			4.1 Rapid Na+ Influx Was Triggered in Response to the Initial Salt Shock
			4.2 A Stable Na+ Influx for Osmotic Adjustment and Shoot Growth Was Maintained with the Prolonging of Salt Stresses
			4.3 The Coordinated Regulation of K+ and Na+ and Na+ Exclusion May Also Play an Important Role for S. maritima to Survive from...
		5 Conclusion
		References
	Recent Advances on Cellular Signaling Paradigm and Salt Stress Responsive Genes in Halophytes
		1 Introduction
		2 Entry and Sensing of Sodium (Na+) in Halophytes
		3 Na+ Membrane Transporter
			3.1 Non-selective Cation Channels in Halophytes
			3.2 High-Affinity K+ Transporter (HKT)
		4 Salt Overly Sensitive Signaling Pathways
		5 Production and Maintenance of Reactive Oxygen and Nitrogen Species Under Salt Stress
		6 Ca2+ Signaling in Salinity Stress
		7 Role of Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Pathway in Salt Stress
		8 Salt-Responsive Transcription Factor
		9 Salt-Responsive Genes
		10 Transcriptomic Analysis Revealed Salt Stress-Responsive Genes
		11 Conclusion
		References
	Seed Germination Strategies of Mediterranean Halophytes Under Saline Condition
		1 Introduction
		2 Seed Dormancy/Nondormancy Cycles
		3 Salinity-Temperature Interactions
		4 Germination Recovery
		5 Seed/Fruit Heteromorphism
		6 Conclusion
		References
Section V: Mangroves
	Flowering Biology of Mangroves (Genus Sonneratia) and the Role of Bats in Their Pollination in Peninsular Malaysia
		1 Introduction
		2 Floral Traits
		3 Flowering and Fruiting Pattern
		4 Flower Visitors
		5 Conclusion
		References
	Neotropical Mangrove Communities: A Review
		1 Introduction
		2 Material and Methods
			2.1 Study Area
			2.2 Characteristics of American Mangrove Phytocoenoses
			2.3 Review of American Mangrove Phytocoenoses
		3 Results and Discussion
			3.1 First Mangrove Studies (1936-1983)
			3.2 Mangrove Studies toward the End of the Twentieth Century (1991-1996)
			3.3 Mangrove Phytocoenoses Described in the Twenty-First Century (2003-2017)
		4 Conclusions
		Appendix I. Syntaxonomic scheme of the Communities Mentioned in the Text
			Class Rhizophoretea mangle O. Bolòs, Cervi, and Hatschbach 1991
			Class Coccolobetea uviferae Del Risco and Borhidi in Borhidi 1996
			Class Sesuvio-Rachicallietea Borhidi in Borhidi, Muñiz, and Del Risco (1979) 1983
		References
	Mangroves Under Extreme Environmental Conditions
		1 Introduction
		2 The Flora of the Mangroves
		3 The Mangroves of the Isabela Island (Galpagos Islands)
		4 Area Reported
			4.1 Bioclimate
			4.2 Mangrove Communities
			4.3 Sintaxonomic Scheme
			4.4 Ecology
		5 The Mangroves of Abu Dhabi (Persian Gulf)
			5.1 Bioclimatic Characteristics
			5.2 Vegetation. Phytosociological Characteristics
		6 Conclusions
		References
	Patterns of Mangrove Productivity and Support for Marine Fauna
		1 Introduction
		2 Patterns of Mangrove Litterfall and Net Primary Productivity (NPP)
		3 Mangroves Provide Food for Marine Benthos, Zooplankton, and Nekton
		4 Conclusions
		References
	Biology and Ecology of the Halophyte Laguncularia racemosa (L.) Gaertn. f.: A Review
		1 Introduction
		2 Nomenclature, Taxonomy, and Variation
			2.1 Seeds and Seedlings
			2.2 Root Morphology and Root Development
			2.3 Stems Figure(s) showing habit, leaves, inflorescence, flowers, fruits
			2.4 Leaves
			2.5 Inflorescence and Flowers
			2.6 Fruits/Propagules
			2.7 Variability
		3 Reproduction and Phenology
			3.1 Sexual Reproduction
			3.2 Pollinators and Pollen
			3.3 Propagules, Dispersal, and Seedling Establishment
			3.4 Phenology
		4 Geographic Distribution
		5 Zonation and Habitats
		6 Salinity
		7 Substrates and Mineral Nutrition
		8 Climatic Requirements and Cold Tolerance
		9 Productivity
		10 Pollution
		11 Economic and Avian Habitat Values
		12 Conclusions
		References
	Biology of the Mangal Halophyte Conocarpus erectus L.: A Review
		1 Introduction
		2 Nomenclature: Taxonomy
		3 Shoot System
			3.1 Leaves
			3.2 Stems
			3.3 Glabrous and Pubescent Morphs
		4 Inflorescence
		5 Breeding Systems and Reproduction
			5.1 Flowers
			5.2 Pollen and Pollinators
			5.3 Fruits, Seeds, and Germination
			5.4 Seed Bank
		6 Geographical Distribution
		7 Zonation and Plant Communities
		8 Substrates
		9 Ecophysiology
		10 Productivity
		11 Interaction with Other Species
		12 Wildlife Values
		13 Air Pollution Indicator Value and Economic Values
		14 Folk Medicine
		15 Conclusions
		References
Section VI: Biochemistry of Halophytes: Dealing with Salt Stress
	Role of Proline and Potassium in Adaptation to Salinity in Different Types of Halophytes
		1 Introduction
		2 Proline Biosynthesis and Catabolism
		3 Regulation of Proline Biosynthesis and Catabolism
		4 Proline Functions
		5 Proline and Potassium in Halophytes
		6 Conclusion
		References
	Ion Transport in Salt Glands and Bladders in Halophyte Species
		1 Introduction
		2 Morphological and Anatomical Features
			2.1 Salt Bladders
			2.2 Salt Glands
			2.3 Microhairs
		3 Ion Transport in Leaf Mesophyll
			3.1 Ion Transport
			3.2 Vacuolar Sequestration
			3.3 Ion Retention in the Vacuole
		4 Ion Transport and Metabolism of Secretory Structures
			4.1 Salt Bladders
			4.2 Salt Glands
			4.3 Microhairs
		5 Conclusion
		References
	Enzymatic Activity in Halophytes
		1 Introduction
		2 Antioxidant Enzymes Responses of Halophytes Grown in Their Natural Habitats
		3 Antioxidant Enzyme Responses of Halophytes Grown in Stress Conditions
			3.1 NaCl Effect on Halophytes Seeds
			3.2 Seawater Effect and Other Salts on Halophyte Seeds
			3.3 Ca2+ Effect on Halophytes Under Salt Stress
				3.3.1 Ascorbic Acid Effect on Halophytes Under Salt Stress
				3.3.2 Heavy Metal Effect on Halophytes Under Salt Stress
		4 Conclusion
		References
	Osmoprotectants and Nonenzymatic Antioxidants in Halophytes
		1 The role of Osmoprotectants in Adaptation to Salinity
		2 Relationship Between Chemical Structure and Activity of Compounds with Osmoprotective and Antioxidant Properties
		3 The Role of Cellular Compartments in Osmolyte Biosynthesis and in Osmoprotective and Antioxidant Balance
			3.1 Cytoplasm
			3.2 Vacuoles
			3.3 Chloroplasts
			3.4 Mitochondria
		4 The Role of Primary and Secondary Metabolites in Response to Salt/Osmotic Stress: Interrelations Between Compounds from Diff...
			4.1 Carbohydrates and Polyols
			4.2 Nitrogen-Containing Compounds
			4.3 Polyamines
			4.4 Phenolic Compounds
				4.4.1 Hydrophilic Phenols with Osmoprotective and Antioxidant Properties
				4.4.2 Hydrophobic Phenols with Antioxidant Properties
		5 Mutual Relationships of Phytohormones and Compounds with Osmoprotective and Antioxidant Properties
		6 Mutual Relationships of Osmoprotectants and Metabolic Processes
		7 Conclusion
		References
	Halophytes as Important Sources of Antioxidants and Anti-Cholinesterase Compounds
		1 Introduction
		2 Halophytes
			2.1 Halophyte Biodiversity
			2.2 Halophyte Evolution into a Source of Antioxidants
		3 Oxidative Stress in Plants and Oxidation Mechanism
		4 Antioxidants
			4.1 Plants´ Antioxidative Mechanisms
			4.2 Focus on the Role of Anti-Cholinesterase in Alzheimer´s Disease Progression
			4.3 Halophytes as Sources of Antioxidants
		5 Conclusion
		References
	Metallomic Approach to Enhance Agricultural Application of Halophytes
		1 Introduction
		2 The Application of Metallomic Approach in Plant Research
			2.1 Methodological Approach in Metallomics
		3 Exploitation of Halophytes Toward the Main Environmental Challenges in Salinized Areas
		4 Halophyte Metallomolecules Involved in Removal of Metal Contaminants from Polluted Environmental Matrices
		5 Metallomes and Their Biological and Physiological Functions in Halophytes: Field of Agricultural Improvements
			5.1 Metalloenzymes
			5.2 Toward Halophytic Crops Tolerant to Abiotic Stresses
			5.3 Toward Biofortified Halophytic Crops
		6 Conclusions
		References
	Adaptation of the Euhalophyte Suaeda salsa to High-Salinity Conditions
		1 Introduction
		2 The Mechanism of Salt Tolerance During Seedling Growth in S. salsa
			2.1 Water Regulation During Seedling Growth
			2.2 Ionic Regulation During Seedling Growth
			2.3 Regulation of Antioxidant Levels During Seedling Growth
		3 Betacyanin Production as an Adaptation to Salt Tolerance in Two Ecological Types of S. salsa Grown in Inland Saline Soils an...
		4 Salt Tolerance in S. salsa During Reproductive Growth
			4.1 Flower Formation During Reproductive Growth
			4.2 Flower Development During Reproductive Growth
			4.3 Seed Formation During Reproductive Growth
		5 Salt Tolerance During Seed Germination in S. salsa
		6 Conclusion and Perspectives
		References
	Effects of Abiotic Stress on Seed Germination of Some Algerian Sahara Psammohalophyte Species
		1 Introduction
		2 Presentation of the Studied Species
		3 Seed Collection and Variations in Life History and Seed Traits
		4 Seed Germination Experiments
			4.1 Thermal Stress Effects
			4.2 Salinity Stress Effects
			4.3 Drought Stress Effects
		5 Methods of Germination Expression
		6 Statistical Analyses
		7 Results
			7.1 Species and Seed Traits
			7.2 Results of Abiotic Stress
				7.2.1 Effects of Constant Temperature on Seed Germination
				7.2.2 Salinity Stress Effects
				7.2.3 Drought Stress Effects
		8 Discussion
		9 Conclusion
		References
	Lipids of Halophyte Species Growing in Lake Elton Region (South East of the European Part of Russia)
		1 Introduction
		2 Halophytes of Prieltonie
		3 Lipid Composition of Leaves of Prieltonie Halophytes
		4 Membrane-Forming Lipids of Halophytes
			4.1 Glycolipids
			4.2 Phospholipids
			4.3 Sterols
			4.4 Sphingolipids
			4.5 Lipid Peroxidation
		5 The Role of Lipids in the Organization of Photosynthetic Apparatus of Halophytes
		6 Lipid Rafts in the Membranes of Chloroplasts and Mitochondria
		7 Conclusion
		References
	Effects of Salinity and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) on Root Growth Development and Productivity of Chia (Salvia hispani...
		1 Introduction
		2 Materials and Methods
			2.1 Site Description and Experimental Layout
			2.2 Sampling, Measurements, and Methods
			2.3 Statistical Analysis
		3 Results and Discussion
			3.1 Mean Weight Diameter (MWD) of Soil Aggregates
			3.2 Total Soil Porosity
			3.3 Soil Organic Matter
			3.4 Soil Total Nitrogen (N)
			3.5 Root Length Density (RLD) and Root Mass Density (RMD)
			3.6 Root Colonization
			3.7 Chia Vegetative Growth Characteristics
			3.8 Total Dry Weight
			3.9 Seed Yield
			3.10 Nitrogen (N) Content and Uptake
		4 Conclusion
		References
	Glycine Betaine as a Major Osmolyte under Abiotic Stress in Halophytes
		1 Introduction
		2 Glycine Betaine and Other Quaternary Ammonium Compounds
		3 Biosynthesis of Glycine Betaine
		4 Stress and Production of the Glycine Betaine
		5 Accumulation of GB in Halophytes Under Abiotic Stress Condition
		6 Role of Glycine Betaine Under Abiotic Stress Conditions
		7 Exogenous Application of Glycine Betaine and Stress Tolerance
		8 Engineering to Improve Stress Tolerance Using Glycine Betaine
		9 Conclusion and Future Prospects
		References
	Phytochemical Diversity of Halophytes
		1 Introduction
		2 Osmoregulation and Osmolyte Diversity in Halophytes
		3 Secondary Metabolism in Halophytes
		4 Phenolic Diversity of Halophytes
		5 Conclusions
		References
Section VII: Origin and Evolution of Halophytes
	Evolution in Angiosperm Halophytes
		1 Introduction
		2 When and Where Did Halophytes Evolve?
		3 Origin of Halophytism Is Related to Effect of Multiple Stress in Primary Environmental Conditions
		4 Morpho-anatomical Adaptations in Halophytes Are Topographically Integrated
		5 Are Succulence and Salt Secretion the Two Major Adaptations in Halophytes?
		6 Origin, Development, and Evolution of Salt Glands
			6.1 Evolution of Salt Glands
		7 Salt Glands Are Bioarchetypes in Living World
		8 Conclusions and Perspectives
		References
Section VIII: Halophytes and Biosaline Agriculture: Potential Use, Phytoremediation
	Economic Utilization of Salt-Affected Wasteland for Plant Production
		1 Introduction
		2 Location and Climate of the Biosaline Research Station
		3 Soil and Water
		4 Natural Vegetation
		5 Salt-Tolerant Plants
		6 Salt-Tolerant Food Crops
		7 Use of Halophytes as Forage
		8 Halophytes Used as Fuel and Charcoal
			8.1 Biofuel
			8.2 Essential Oils
		9 Value-Added Products
		10 Saline Aquaculture
		11 Saline Apiculture
		12 Sustainability of the Biosaline Research Station
		References
	Haloremediation for Amelioration of Salinity
		1 Introduction
		2 Sources of Salinity
		3 Marine and Lithogenic Sources
		4 Anthropogenic Sources
		5 Saline and Sodic Soils
		6 Effects on Plants
		7 Salt Stress Imposition on Plant Physiology, Growth and Development
		8 Phytoremediation
		9 Haloremediation
		10 Halophytes
		11 Metabolism and Morphology of Halophytes
		12 Importance of Halophytes
		13 Haloremediation of Saline Soils
		14 Conclusion
		References
	Ensuring Food Security of Arid Regions through Sustainable Cultivation of Halophytes
		1 Introduction
		2 Economic Potential of Halophytes
		3 Palatability and Feeding Value of Halophytes
		4 Halophytes as a Source of Food, Fodder, and Forage
			4.1 Amaranth (Amaranthus)
			4.2 Beta vulgaris subsp. maritima (L.) Arcang. (Sugar Beet)
			4.3 Capparis spinosa L. (Caper Bush)
			4.4 Chenopodium album L. (Bacon Weed)
			4.5 Chenopodium quinoa Willd. (Quinoa)
			4.6 Cichorium spinosum L. (Spiny Chicory)
			4.7 Crithmum maritimum L. (Sea Fennel)
			4.8 Cynara cardunculus L. (Artichoke Thistle)
			4.9 Eryngium maritimum L. (Sea Holly)
			4.10 Inula crithmoides L. (Golden Samphire)
			4.11 Plantago coronopus (Buck´s-Horn Plantain)
			4.12 Portulaca oleracea L. (Common Purslane)
			4.13 Salicornia herbacea L. (Glasswort)
			4.14 Salsola soda L. (Saltwort)
			4.15 Sesuvium portulacastrum L. (Glasswort)
			4.16 Suaeda fruticosa Forssk. (Shrubby Sea Blight)
			4.17 Tribulus terrestris L. (Puncture Vine)
		5 Forage and Fodder Potential of Halophytes
		6 Grasses as Forage and Fodder
		7 Conclusion
		References
	Biomass Production of Various Halophytes
		1 Introduction
		2 Role of Halophytes in a Sustainable Environment
		3 Mechanism of Adaptation of Halophytes Under Saline Condition
		4 Halophytes for Lignocellulosic Biomass
		5 Halophytes for Oil
		6 Halophytic Crops for Saline Agriculture and Bioenergy
		7 Food Security
		8 Halophyte as a Human Food
		9 Nutritive Value of Halophytes as Animal Feed Components
		10 Phytoremediation
		11 Conclusions
		References
	Halophytes and the Future of Agriculture
		1 Introduction
		2 Mechanisms of Halophytes and Their Potential Use in Saline-Stressed Soils
		3 Future of Agriculture
		4 Biochemical and Molecular Approaches to Increase the Potential Use of Halophytes in Biosaline Agriculture
		5 Conclusions and Future Prospects
		References
	Halophytes as a Potential Resource for Phytodesalination
		1 Introduction
		2 Growth and Adaptive Mechanisms
		3 Phytodesalination: A Green Remediation Strategy to Reclaim Saline Soil
			3.1 Halophytic Plants: Remedy for Soil Desalination
			3.2 Salt-Tolerant Agricultural Crops: Application in Bio-saline and Desalination
		4 Success Stories: Phytodesalination and Bio-saline Agriculture
		5 Conclusions
		References
	Phytoremediation of Salt-Affected Soils Using Halophytes
		1 Introduction
		2 Salt-Affected Soil
		3 Salinity Stress on Crop Response
			3.1 Salt Tolerance Mechanisms of Plants
			3.2 Glycophytes
			3.3 Halophyte Plants
			3.4 Diversity of Halophytes
		4 Remediation of Salt-Affected Soils by Halophytes
		5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
		References
	Halophytes as Medicinal Herbs
		1 Introduction
			1.1 Nature and Ecology of Halophytes
		2 Potential Use of Halophytes
		3 Medical Use of Halophytes
			3.1 Traditional Medical Use of Halophytes
				3.1.1 Halophyte Plants Used for Gastroenteric System
				3.1.2 Halophyte Plants Used for Skin and Soft Tissue Diseases
				3.1.3 Halophyte Plants Used in Respiratory Tract Diseases
				3.1.4 Halophyte Plants Used for Genitourinary Diseases
				3.1.5 Halophyte Plants Used as Analgesics Against Pain and Fever
				3.1.6 Halophyte Plants Used for Rheumatism
			3.2 Modern Medical Use of Halophytes as a Raw Material
		4 Conclusion
		References
	Halophytes
		1 Introduction
		2 Adaptations in Halophytes
		3 Phytoremediation
			3.1 Strategies of Phytoremediation
				3.1.1 Phytoextraction
				3.1.2 Phytofiltration
				3.1.3 Phytostabilization
				3.1.4 Phytovolatilization
				3.1.5 Phytodegradation
				3.1.6 Rhizodegradation
				3.1.7 Phytodesalination
				3.1.8 Salt Phytoremediation
		4 Importance of Halophytes in Phytoremediation
			4.1 Examples
		5 Conclusion
		References
	Portulaca oleracea: A Vegetable from Saline Habitats
		1 Introduction
		2 Morphological Features and Taxonomic Status
		3 Ecological and Ecophysiological Features
		4 Effect of Salinity
		5 Cultivation Studies
		6 Nutritional Features and Evaluation as Human Food
		7 Some Risks Associated with Diet and Alternative Suggestions
		8 Conclusions
		References
	The Genera Salsola and Suaeda (Amaranthaceae) and Their Value as Fodder
		1 Introduction
		2 Some Morphological, Ecological, and Ecophysiological Features
			2.1 Genus Salsola
			2.2 Genus Suaeda
		3 Nutritional Features and Evaluation as a Fodder
			3.1 Genus Salsola
			3.2 Genus Suaeda
		4 Some Risks Associated with These Genera as Diet and Alternative Suggestions
		5 Conclusions
		References
	Halophytes in India and Their Role in Phytoremediation
		1 Introduction
		2 Halophytes and Their Role in Phytoremediation
			2.1 Halophytes in India
			2.2 Role of Halophytes in Phytoremediation
				2.2.1 Phytoextraction
				2.2.2 Phytostabilization
				2.2.3 Phytoextraction and Phytovolatilization
				2.2.4 Phytodesalination
				2.2.5 Phytoexcretion
				2.2.6 Advanced Techniques for Complete Removal of Pollutants
				2.2.7 Phytoextraction Aided by Biochemicals
		3 Tolerance Mechanism of Halophytes to Extreme Environments
			3.1 Mechanism of Salt Tolerance in Halophytes
			3.2 Heavy Metal Tolerance Mechanism in Halophytes
		4 Conclusion
		References
	Halophytes for Future Horticulture
		1 Introduction
		2 Chemical Composition and Health Effects of Halophytes
			2.1 Biochemical Content of Halophytes
			2.2 Halophytes as Medicinal Herbs: Health Effects
		3 Halophytes as Cash Crops: The Special Case of Small-Scale Farms
			3.1 Identifying Halophytes as Crop, Ornamental, Medicinal, and Energy Production Plants
			3.2 Halophytes and Small-Scale Farming
			3.3 Phytoremediation and Soil Reclamation
		4 Conclusionary Remarks and Future Challenges
		References
	Use of Halophytes for the Remediation of Metal-Affected Soils in Arid Environments
		1 Introduction
		2 Challenges of Metal-Affected Sites
		3 Phytoremediation Alternatives for Metal-Affected Sites
			3.1 Plant Selection
		4 Challenges of Phytostabilization in Arid Ecosystems
			4.1 Erosion
			4.2 Wind Dispersion
			4.3 Soil Salinization
		5 Use of Halophytes for Phytostabilization
		6 Physiological and Adaptive Challenges for Halophyte Species
			6.1 Metal(loid) Exclusion
			6.2 Antioxidant Capacity
			6.3 Chelating Agents
			6.4 Dealing with Multiple Stresses
		7 Current Experiences
		8 Conclusion
		References
	Heavy Metal Remediation in Wetlands
		1 Introduction
		2 Strategies to Tackle Heavy Metal Stress
			2.1 Morphological and Anatomical Adaptations
			2.2 Physiochemical Adaptations
				2.2.1 Photosynthetic Responses
				2.2.2 Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Machinery
				2.2.3 Osmotic Regulation
				2.2.4 Metal-Binding Molecules
					Phytochelatins (PCs)
					Metallothioneins (MTs)
		3 Strategies to Avoid Heavy Metal Stress
			3.1 Excretion
			3.2 Exclusion
			3.3 Accumulation
		4 Strategies of Phytoremediation in Mangroves
			4.1 Phytostabilization
			4.2 Phytoextraction
			4.3 Phytovolatilization
		5 Transgenic Approaches for Imparting Heavy Metal Tolerance to Mangroves
		6 Mangroves Genome: A Potential Mine of Genes for Imparting Heavy Metal Tolerance to Other Plants/Organisms
		7 Conclusion
		References
	Halophytes: The Nonconventional Crops as Source of Biofuel Production
		1 Introduction
		2 Current Scenario of the Worldwide Biofuel Production
		3 Various Conversion Routes of Halophytic Biomass Feedstocks to Biofuels
		4 Halophytes for Biofuel Production
		5 Socioeconomic Impacts of Biofuel Production from Halophyte Biomass
		6 Techno-economic Feasibility of Biofuel Production
		7 Life Cycle Analysis
		8 Policy Considerations in the Main Biofuel Producing Countries
			8.1 United States
			8.2 Brazil
			8.3 China
			8.4 European Union Bioenergy Policy
			8.5 India
			8.6 Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
		9 Key Challenge and Logistic Issues Related to Biofuel Production
		10 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
	Potential Use of Halophytes and Salt-Tolerant Forages as Animal Feed in the Arab Region
		1 Introduction
		2 Arab Region Characteristics
			2.1 Main Features of Livestock Production System
			2.2 Main Features of Rangelands in the Arab Region
		3 Magnitude of Halophytes and Salt-Tolerant Plants (HSTP)
			3.1 Halophytes Characteristics in Arab Region
			3.2 Potential Uses of Halophytes
			3.3 Prospects of Naturally Grown Halophytes as Animal Fodders
		4 Feeding Halophytes and Salt-Tolerant Fodders to Livestock
			4.1 Feeding Natural Halophytic and Salt-Tolerant Fodder Species Without Processing
			4.2 Integrated Management Packages (IMP) for Salt-Tolerant Fodder Crop Production
		5 Halophytic Fodder Constraints and Approaches for Improving Its Utilization
			5.1 Energy Supplementation
			5.2 Ensiling
			5.3 Feeding Halophytic Shrubs in a Mixture
			5.4 Physical and Chemical Treatments
		6 General Outcomes and Conclusions
		References
Section IX: Halophytes, Ethnobotany, Culture, and Human Civilization: Bringing Halophytes into Human Life
	Nutrient Feasibility of Halophytic Feed Plants
		1 Introduction
		2 Energy in Halophyte Plants
			2.1 Energy Determination
			2.2 Salt Requirements and Tolerance
			2.3 Salt Barriers to the Estimation of Energy
			2.4 Pseudo-energy Contents
			2.5 Efficiency of Energy Utilization
				2.5.1 Energy Intake
			2.6 Energy Digestibility
			2.7 Type of Energy Supplementation
			2.8 Level of Energy Supplementation
			2.9 Feasibility of Energy Utilization of Halophytes
		3 Proteins in Halophyte Plants
			3.1 Characteristic of Halophytic Proteins
			3.2 Efficiency of Halophytic Protein Utilization
			3.3 Dietary Non-degradable Proteins
			3.4 Non-protein Nitrogen (NPN) Contents of Halophytes
			3.5 Efficiency of the Utilization of NPN
			3.6 Efficiency of Microbial Protein Synthesis
		4 Conclusion
		References
	Halophyte Use and Cultivation
		1 Introduction
		2 Halophyte Use and Cultivation
			2.1 Halophyte Use
			2.2 Halophyte Cultivation
		3 Conclusion
		References
	Ethnobotany, Nutritional Traits, and Healthy Properties of Some Halophytes Used as Greens in the Mediterranean Basin
		1 Introduction
		2 Beta vulgaris subsp. maritima (L.) Arcang
		3 Capparis spp.
		4 Chenopodium album L.
		5 Crithmum maritimum L.
		6 Portulaca oleracea L.
		7 Salicornia spp.
		8 Salsola soda L.
		9 Conclusion and Perspectives
		References
	Halophyte Diversity in Pakistan
		1 Introduction
			1.1 Halophytes
			1.2 Halophyte Diversity at a Global Perspective
			1.3 Halophyte Diversity in Pakistan
			1.4 Halophyte Diversity in Punjab
			1.5 Systematic Study of Halophytes
			1.6 Halophytes and Saline Environment
			1.7 Saline Soils
			1.8 Medicinal Significance of Halophytes
				1.8.1 Modes of Utilization and Plant Part Used
				1.8.2 Conclusion and Perspectives
		References
	Halophytes as a Resource for Livestock in Africa: Present Status and Prospects
		1 Introduction
		2 Ecology and Diversity of Halophytes
		3 Potential Multiple Uses of Halophytes
			3.1 Physiological Mechanisms and Genetic Determinants of Salinity Tolerance
			3.2 Desalination and Phytoremediation
			3.3 Bioenergy
			3.4 Intercropping
		4 Use of Halophytes as Animal Feed in Africa
		5 Conclusions
		References
	Halophytes, Salinization, and the Rise and Fall of Civilizations
		1 Introduction
			1.1 Salinization and Civilizations
			1.2 Halophytes and Civilizations
		2 Domesticated Halophytes
		3 Extreme Halophytes in Archaeological Contexts
			3.1 Concept
			3.2 Ecotones
		4 Mesopotamia
			4.1 Social Changes Versus Salinization
			4.2 Textual Evidence
		5 Egypt
			5.1 The Impact of Salinization in Ancient Egypt
			5.2 The Use of Halophytic Plants in Ancient Egypt: The Case of the Eloquent Peasant
			5.3 The Species from Wadi El-Natrun
				5.3.1 M Iaaw (j33) (Arundo donax L., likely)
				5.3.2 Redemet (rdmt) (Arundo donax L. + Typha domingensis Pers.)
				5.3.3 Shenyta (snj-t3) (cheny-ta) (Cyperus sp.)
				5.3.4 Seeds ibsa (jbs3) (Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. or Cyperus laevigatus L.)
				5.3.5 Wood of ``aunt´´ (awnt) (Tamarix nilotica (Ehrenb.) Bunge)
				5.3.6 Nesau (ns3w) (Zannichellia palustris L.)
				5.3.7 Jeperur (pr-wr)
				5.3.8 Inbi (ineb) (jnbj) (Atriplex halimus L., Tetraena alba (L.f.) Beier & Thulin, or Zygophyllum coccineum L.)
				5.3.9 Tebesu (tbsw) (Alhagi graecorum Boiss)
				5.3.10 Gengenet Seeds (gngnt) (Cakile maritima Scop. or Brassica nigra (L.) Koch)
				5.3.11 Inset Seeds: (jnst)
				5.3.12 Unidentified Names and Overall Interpretation
		6 Tiwanaku Culture
			6.1 Salinity in the Altiplano
			6.2 Tiwanaku Origins and Development
			6.3 Evidence for a Salinity Crisis and Halophytes in Tiwanaku
		7 Prospective Within the Current Climate Change
		8 Conclusion
		References
	Halophytes as Food
		1 Introduction
			1.1 History of Halophytes as Food
		2 Relevant Edible Halophytes
			2.1 Rhizomes, Roots
			2.2 Stems and Leaves
			2.3 Flowers
			2.4 Fruits
			2.5 Seeds
			2.6 Sap
		3 Culinary Use of Halophytes (Gastroethnobotany)
			3.1 Salad
			3.2 Soup
			3.3 Boiled
			3.4 Seasoning
			3.5 Fried
			3.6 Omelettes
			3.7 Pickled
			3.8 Brined
		4 Halophytes in the Nouvelle Cuisine
		5 New Recipes with Halophytes Lesser Known as Edible: The Case of Alicante, Southern Spain
			5.1 Recipe 1. Spanish Rice with Fresh Wild Halophytes (Fig. 5a)
				5.1.1 Ingredients
				5.1.2 Elaboration
				5.1.3 Presentation
			5.2 Recipe 2. Spanish Rice with Halophytes, Weeds, and Seaweeds (Fig. 5b)
				5.2.1 Ingredients
				5.2.2 Elaboration
				5.2.3 Presentation
			5.3 Recipe 3. Cream of Red Samphire [``Crustceos de tierra´´] (Fig. 5c)
				5.3.1 Ingredients
				5.3.2 Elaboration
				5.3.3 Presentation
			5.4 Recipe 4. Norway Lobster Marinated with Cream of Red Samphire (Fig. 5d)
				5.4.1 Ingredients
				5.4.2 Elaboration
				5.4.3 Presentation
			5.5 Recipe 5. Iceplant Cream and Couscous in Mediterranean Kimchi of Cucumber and Fermented Weeds (Fig. 5e)
				5.5.1 Ingredients
				5.5.2 Elaboration
				5.5.3 Presentation
			5.6 Recipe 6. Halophytes Pickled in Brine with Plancton Algan (Fig. 5f)
				5.6.1 Ingredients
				5.6.2 Elaboration
				5.6.3 Presentation
		6 Crops and Commercialization
		7 Halophyte Food Composition and Health Risks and Benefits
			7.1 Health Benefits
			7.2 Toxicity
		8 Conclusion
		References
	Halophytes in Arts and Crafts: Ethnobotany of Glassmaking
		1 Introduction
			1.1 What Is Glass?
			1.2 Glassmaking and Core Constituents of Glass
			1.3 Glassmaking Materials and Their History
			1.4 Barrilla
		2 ``Barrilla´´ Halophyte Plant Diversity
		3 Barrilla Plant Propagation and Cultivation
			3.1 ``Barrilla´´ Propagation
			3.2 System of Cultivation
			3.3 Barrilla Harvest
		4 Barrilla Burning
		5 Quality Standards and Adulteration
		6 Barrilla Trade
		7 Conclusions
		References
	Ethnopharmacology and Medicinal Uses of Extreme Halophytes
		1 Introduction
			1.1 Halophytes
			1.2 Extreme Halophytes
			1.3 Highly Tolerant Genera and Species
		2 Response to High Saline Concentrations as a Source of Medicinal Metabolites
			2.1 Adaptive Mechanisms
			2.2 Compatible Solutes
			2.3 Secondary Metabolites
		3 Medicinal Uses of Extreme Halophytes
			3.1 Focal Pathologies
			3.2 Preparation and Administration
		4 Relevant Medicinal Families and Genera of Halophytes
			4.1 Pteridopsida
			4.2 Magnoliopsida
			4.3 Liliopsida
		5 Toxicity and Risks of Halophytes
			5.1 Toxic Substances in Halophytes
		6 Halophytes in Traditional Systems of Medicine
			6.1 Traditional Chinese Medicine
			6.2 Ayurveda
			6.3 Unani
		7 Pharmaceutical Processing and Novel Products
			7.1 Pharmacopeial, HMPC, and WHO Monographs
			7.2 Dietary Supplements
			7.3 Pharmaceuticals
			7.4 Cosmetics
		8 Conclusion
		References
	Halophytic Plant Existence in Indian Salt Flats: Biodiversity, Biology, and Uses
		1 Introduction
		2 Indian Salt Flats
			2.1 Coastal Salt Flats
			2.2 Inland Salt Flats
			2.3 Ecological and Social Significance of Salt Flats
		3 Biodiversity of Halophytes on Indian Salt Flats
			3.1 Halophytes Along the West Coast
			3.2 Halophytes Along the East Coast
			3.3 Halophytes Along the Inland Runns/Playas
		4 Biology of Halophytes
		5 Ethnobotany and Potential Utilization of Halophytes
		6 Conclusion
		References
	Biodiversity and Possible Utilization of Halophytes in Qatar
		1 Introduction
		2 General Ecological Description of the State of Qatar
		3 General Classification of Halophytes
		4 Mechanisms of Salinity Resistance
			4.1 Avoidance Mechanisms
				4.1.1 Exclusion Mechanisms
				4.1.2 Extrusion Mechanisms
				4.1.3 Dilution (Succulence) Mechanism
			4.2 Tolerance Mechanisms
		5 Description for Selected Qatari Halophyte Species
		6 Halophyte Applications in Agriculture
		7 Halophyte Importance for Animal Feeding
		8 Biofuel Significance of Halophytes
		9 Halophyte Plant Applications in Medicine
		10 Halophyte for Oil Production Applications and Commercial Products
		11 Halophytes for Desalination, Phytoremediation, and Biofuel
		12 Halophytes and the Role of the Associated Microorganisms
			12.1 Applications that Can be Produced and Investigated from Endophytes
			12.2 Efficiency of Using Endophyte-Plant Relation in the Phytoremediation of Organic Waste in Soil
		13 Conclusion
		References
	Halophytic Salt Load in Relation to Rumen Osmolality, Microbial Activity, and Animal Performance
		1 Introduction
		2 Rumen Environment
		3 Dietary Effects on Rumen Osmolality
		4 Effect of Rumen Osmolality on Animal Performance
			4.1 Effect of Osmolality on Rumen Contents and Function
				4.1.1 Ruminal pH
				4.1.2 Rumen Epithelial Layer
				4.1.3 Rumen Volume and Rate of Passage
				4.1.4 Microorganisms Count
				4.1.5 Microbial Function
				4.1.6 Volatile Fatty Acid (VFA) Absorption
			4.2 Effect of Rumen Osmolality on Feed Intake
			4.3 Effect of Osmolality on Water Intake
		5 Conclusion
		References
	Halophytes as an Option for the Restoration of Degraded Areas and Landscaping
		1 Introduction
		2 Ornamental Plants and Salt Tolerance
		3 Restoration of Degraded Areas with Halophytes
		4 Halophytes for Landscaping
		5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
	Agriculture and Sheep Production in the Patagonian Salt Marshes
		1 Introduction
		2 Agriculture and Sheep Production in the Patagonian Salt Marshes
			2.1 The Salt Marsh
				2.1.1 Malaspina Cove
				2.1.2 Río Chico
		3 Vegetable Production
			3.1 Comodoro Rivadavia: Salicornia (Amerocornia) neei
				3.1.1 Beagle Channel: Salicornia (Amerocornia) magellanica
				3.1.2 Nutritional Quality of Salicornia (Amerocornia) Spp.
		4 Meat Production in the Salicornia (Amerocornia) neei Community of Malaspina Cove (Chubut)
			4.1 Tasting of Sheep Meat
			4.2 Social Impact of Innovation
		5 Conclusions
		References
Index