Handbook of Frozen Food Processing and Packaging (Contemporary Food Engineering)

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Handbook of Frozen Food Processing and Packaging......Page 6
Preface......Page 8
Editor......Page 9
Contributors......Page 10
Table of Contents......Page 13
Part I: Fundamentals of Freezing......Page 16
Table of Contents......Page 0
CONTENTS......Page 17
II. THE STRUCTURE OF WATER AND ICE......Page 18
A. HYDROGEN BONDS......Page 19
B. HEXAGONAL ICE (ICE Ih)......Page 20
C. PROPERTIES OF WATER AND ICE......Page 21
A. HOMOGENEOUS AND HETEROGENEOUS NUCLEATION......Page 23
C. FREEZING CURVES......Page 26
1. Phase and State Diagrams......Page 27
2. Freezing Point Depression......Page 28
2. Nucleation and Ice Crystal Growth in Water and Aqueous Solutions......Page 29
IV. VITRIFICATION......Page 30
A. INTRACELLULAR AND EXTRACELLULAR ICE CRYSTALS IN FROZEN CELLS AND TISSUES......Page 32
A. STRUCTURE CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANT AND MUSCLE TISSUES......Page 34
1. Changes in Cell Volume, Water Dislocation during Freezing, and Mechanical Damage......Page 35
3. Moisture Migration......Page 36
b. Migratory Recrystallization or Grain Growth......Page 37
e. Irruptive Recrystallization......Page 38
1. Concentration of Nonaqueous Constituents During Freezing......Page 39
a. Enzyme Activity......Page 40
VII. CONCLUSIONS......Page 41
NOMENCLATURE......Page 42
REFERENCES......Page 43
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 46
II. UNFREEZABLE WATER......Page 48
III. THE CONCEPT OF “STATE DIAGRAM” IN FOOD SYSTEMS......Page 49
B. CONVENTIONAL DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING CALORIMETRY......Page 52
C. MODULATED DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING CALORIMETRY......Page 53
1. Viscosity (Eta)......Page 54
2. Dynamic Mechanical Analysis......Page 55
V. GLASS TRANSITIONS IN FROZEN FRUITS, FRUIT JUICES, AND MODEL CARBOHYDRATE SOLUTIONS......Page 57
VI. GLASS TRANSITIONS IN ICE CREAM AND OTHER FABRICATED PRODUCTS......Page 60
VII. Tg PERSPECTIVE OF COLLAPSE PHENOMENA, CHEMICAL REACTIONS, AND ENZYMIC ACTIVITY......Page 61
VIII. CONCLUSIONS......Page 62
NOMENCLATURE......Page 63
REFERENCES......Page 64
CONTENTS......Page 70
B. HEAT......Page 71
E. ENERGY CONSERVATION FOR STEADY FLOW......Page 72
G. PHASE CHANGE PROCESSES......Page 73
H. EQUILIBRIUM FOR MULTICOMPONENT SOLUTION......Page 75
A. THE CARNOT REFRIGERATION CYCLE AND ITS MODIFICATION......Page 76
B. THE STANDARD VAPOR COMPRESSION CYCLE......Page 77
IV. ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION CYCLE......Page 78
A. CYCLE DESCRIPTION......Page 79
B. CYCLE ANALYSIS......Page 80
C. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS......Page 81
V. EJECTOR REFRIGERATION CYCLE......Page 83
B. CYCLE ANALYSIS......Page 84
C. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS......Page 85
D. OPTIMUM CONTROL MAP......Page 87
VI. NOVEL COMBINED CYCLES......Page 88
1. Cycle Analysis......Page 89
2. Performance Characteristics......Page 90
B. COMBINED EJECTOR–VAPOR COMPRESSION CYCLE......Page 91
2. Performance Characteristics......Page 92
NOMENCLATURE......Page 93
REFERENCES......Page 94
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 97
A. CHANGES IN THE MICROBIAL ENVIRONMENT DURING FREEZING OF FOODS......Page 98
C. INJURY OF MICROORGANISMS DURING FREEZING, THAWING, AND FROZEN STORAGE......Page 99
A. VIRUSES......Page 102
B. BACTERIA......Page 103
C. FUNGI......Page 104
E. MULTICELLULAR PARASITES......Page 105
V. FREEZING OF FOODS IN RELATION TO HACCP SYSTEMS......Page 106
REFERENCES......Page 107
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 113
A. DEFINITION AND APPLICATIONS......Page 114
C. PREDICTION MODELS OF INITIAL FREEZING POINT......Page 116
B. PREDICTION MODELS OF ICE CONTENT......Page 119
B. PREDICTION MODELS OF ENTHALPY......Page 123
B. PREDICTION MODELS OF SPECIFIC HEAT......Page 125
B. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENT AND DATA......Page 127
C. PREDICTION MODELS OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY......Page 129
VIII. DENSITY......Page 131
IX. THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY......Page 132
Greek symbols......Page 134
REFERENCES......Page 135
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 138
B. FREEZING RATE AND THERMAL CENTER......Page 139
A. PLANK’S EQUATION......Page 140
C. LEVY EQUATION......Page 143
D. CLELAND AND EARLE EQUATION......Page 144
G. MODIFIED PHAM METHOD......Page 145
IV. THAWING TIME PREDICTION......Page 148
NOMENCLATURE......Page 149
REFERENCES......Page 150
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 152
III. METHODS FOR DISCRETIZATION OF THE PDE......Page 153
A. FINITE DIFFERENCE METHOD......Page 154
B. TIME STEPPING......Page 155
C. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD......Page 157
D. FINITE VOLUME METHOD......Page 160
1. Classification of Methods......Page 161
3. Enthalpy Methods......Page 162
4. Quasi-Enthalpy Method......Page 164
B. DEALING WITH VARIABLE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY......Page 166
V. COUPLED HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER......Page 167
A. MASS TRANSFER DURING THE FREEZING OF DENSE FOODS......Page 168
1. Evaporation–Condensation Model......Page 170
2. A General Model for the Freezing of Porous Foods......Page 171
VI. SUPERCOOLING AND NUCLEATION EFFECTS......Page 172
VII. MODELING OF HIGH PRESSURE FREEZING AND THAWING......Page 175
VIII. MODELING OF THERMOMECHANICAL EFFECTS DURING FREEZING......Page 177
IX. CONCLUSIONS......Page 178
NOMENCLATURE......Page 179
REFERENCES......Page 181
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 185
A. FORMATION OF ICE CRYSTALS......Page 186
B. FOOD MICROSTRUCTURE DURING FREEZING......Page 187
3. Shape and Size of Food Product......Page 189
III. HIGH-PRESSURE SHIFT FREEZING......Page 190
IV. ULTRASONIC FREEZING......Page 193
V. DEHYDROFREEZING......Page 195
A. ANTIFREEZE PROTEINS......Page 197
B. ICE NUCLEATION PROTEINS......Page 200
REFERENCES......Page 202
Part II: Facilities for the Cold Chain......Page 206
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 207
D. CONTACT FREEZING......Page 208
A. BATCH AIR BLAST FREEZERS......Page 209
C. FLUIDIZED BED FREEZERS......Page 210
E. LIQUID IMMERSION FREEZERS......Page 211
G. CONTINUOUS PLATE FREEZERS......Page 212
I. CARBON DIOXIDE FREEZERS......Page 213
A. PRODUCT SUITABILITY......Page 214
D. CONTROL AND OPERATION......Page 215
V. CONCLUSIONS......Page 217
REFERENCES......Page 218
CONTENTS......Page 219
B. JACKETED COLD STORES......Page 220
III. DESIGN OF FROZEN STORAGE ROOMS......Page 221
4. Change of Use......Page 222
5. Plant Layout......Page 223
1. Environmental Conditions......Page 224
5. Doors......Page 225
7. Refrigeration Plant Capacity......Page 226
10. Engineering Design Summary......Page 227
C. MONITORING......Page 228
B. ROOM AIR MOVEMENT......Page 229
D. DEFROSTS......Page 230
F. PEOPLE AND MACHINERY......Page 231
J. USE OF COLDROOM MODEL......Page 232
REFERENCES......Page 234
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 235
II. QUALITY AND SAFETY RISKS DURING THE TRANSPORT OF FROZEN FOODS......Page 237
C. TYPE OF PACKAGING......Page 238
IV. CONTAINERIZED SEA TRANSPORT......Page 239
V. VESSEL SEA TRANSPORT......Page 241
VI. ROAD TRANSPORT......Page 242
VIII. AIR TRANSPORT......Page 244
A. REGULATORY APPROACHES......Page 245
B. TECHNOLOGY FOR TEMPERATURE MONITORING DURING TRANSPORT......Page 246
X. FUTURE TECHNOLOGIES......Page 247
REFERENCES......Page 248
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 251
1. Horizontal Open-Top Cabinet......Page 252
B. HEAT BALANCE......Page 253
1. Heat Fluxes from the External Ambient......Page 254
2. Heat Fluxes from Internal Sources......Page 255
C. AIR DISTRIBUTION......Page 256
D. REFRIGERATING EQUIPMENT......Page 258
F. FUTURE TRENDS......Page 260
IV. INSTALLATION......Page 261
VI. MONITORING......Page 262
VIII. CONCLUSIONS......Page 263
REFERENCES......Page 264
CONTENTS......Page 267
A. HISTORIC EVOLUTION......Page 268
2. Materials......Page 269
1. Vapour-Compression Cycle......Page 270
a. Stirling Cycle......Page 271
c. Thermoelectric Cycle......Page 272
3. Side-by-Side Combination......Page 273
B. FREEZERS......Page 274
IV. OPERATION AND PERFORMANCE OF REFRIGERATORS AND FREEZERS......Page 275
a. Type......Page 276
b. Average Temperatures......Page 277
f. Thermostat Setting......Page 278
1. Empty Refrigerator......Page 279
2. Chest Freezer......Page 280
D. ENERGY CONSUMPTION......Page 282
REFERENCES......Page 284
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 286
1. Cold Store......Page 288
2. Transport......Page 289
3. Retail Display......Page 290
5. Transfer Points......Page 291
2. Read Out and Recording Systems......Page 292
III. TEMPERATURE EFFECT ON SHELF-LIFE......Page 293
A. QUALITY MODELING OF FROZEN FOODS......Page 294
B. MICROBIOLOGY OF FROZEN FOODS......Page 296
D. SHELF-LIFE PREDICTION UNDER FLUCTUATING TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS......Page 298
E. APPLICATION OF TTI AS MONITORING AND PREDICTION TOOLS......Page 303
IV. OPTIMIZED MANAGEMENT WITH TTI......Page 305
V. CONCLUSIONS......Page 309
Subscript......Page 310
REFERENCES......Page 311
Part III: Quality and Safety of Frozen Foods......Page 315
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 316
2. Processing Factors......Page 317
1. Freezing......Page 318
C. PROCESSED MEATS......Page 319
A. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS......Page 322
C. PATHOGENIC BACTERIA......Page 323
IV. CONCLUSIONS......Page 325
REFERENCES......Page 326
CONTENTS......Page 330
II. NUTRITIONAL ASPECTS OF FROZEN POULTRY AND POULTRY PRODUCTS......Page 331
A. NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF POULTRY MEAT......Page 332
A. FREEZING, PACKAGING, AND THAWING......Page 334
B. FROZEN POULTRY PRODUCT QUALITY DURING STORAGE......Page 335
C. INTRINSIC CHEMICAL REACTIONS......Page 337
2. Acidulants......Page 338
E. PROTECTING THE QUALITY OF FROZEN POULTRY......Page 339
3. Product Storage......Page 340
A. CONCERN FOR FOOD SAFETY AND QUALITY......Page 341
2. Chlorine Compounds......Page 342
6. Temperature Treatments......Page 343
REFERENCES......Page 344
CONTENTS......Page 346
II. EFFECTS OF LOW TEMPERATURE ON MICROBIAL GROWTH AND RETENTION OF QUALITY ATTRIBUTES IN FISHERY PRODUCTS......Page 347
A. MICROBIAL GROWTH AND WATER ACTIVITY (aW) VERSUS MOISTURE CONTENT......Page 348
B. FISH MICROBIAL FLORA......Page 350
C. EFFECT OF LOW TEMPERATURE ON FISH MICROBIAL FLORA......Page 351
2. Effect of e-Beam on Microbial Inactivation of Frozen and Chilled Surimi Seafood Gels......Page 352
3. Effect of Electron Beam on Physical Properties of Frozen Surimi Seafood (Crabmeat)......Page 353
E. SELECTION OF RAW MATERIALS......Page 354
F. STRESS AT HARVEST AND POSTHARVEST HANDLING OF RAW MATERIALS......Page 355
III. CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN FISH MUSCLE DURING FROZEN STORAGE......Page 356
A. PROTEIN DENATURATION......Page 357
2. Factors Affecting Denaturation......Page 358
1. Mechanisms of Aggregation......Page 360
C. PROTEIN EXTRACTABILITY AND SOLUBILITY......Page 361
F. ADVERSE SENSORY EFFECTS......Page 362
2. Texture......Page 363
IV. CRYOPROTECTION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS......Page 365
A. CRYOPROTECTANTS......Page 366
B. PHOSPHATE......Page 368
1. Solute Exclusion......Page 369
3. Freezing Point Depression......Page 370
V. CONCLUSIONS......Page 371
REFERENCES......Page 372
CONTENTS......Page 382
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 383
1. Agrotechnical Practices and Conditions......Page 384
2. Species and Variety......Page 385
4. Quality Assessment of Raw Material......Page 386
5. Nutritional Aspects of Raw Material......Page 387
6. Microbiological and Safety Aspects of Raw Material......Page 388
1. Main Preparatory Procedures......Page 389
a. Effects of Blanching on Quality......Page 391
b. Nutritional and Microbiological Aspects of Blanching......Page 394
c. Technological Aspects of Blanching......Page 395
3. Freezing......Page 396
a. Freezing Effects on Structure and Texture......Page 397
c. Methods and Equipment for Freezing......Page 399
d. Nutritional and Microbiological Aspects of Freezing......Page 401
C. PACKAGING......Page 402
III. INFLUENCE OF STORAGE......Page 403
A. PHYSICAL CHANGES DURING STORAGE......Page 404
2. Changes Associated with Alterations in Color......Page 405
3. Ascorbic Acid Oxidation and Changes in pH......Page 407
C. COMBINED EFFECT OF TIME AND TEMPERATURE DURING STORAGE (T–T–T FACTORS)......Page 408
D. IMPORTANCE OF STORAGE TEMPERATURE IN THE FREEZING CHAIN......Page 412
IV. CONCLUSIONS......Page 413
REFERENCES......Page 415
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 421
A. AGRONOMICAL FACTORS......Page 422
B. TECHNOLOGICAL FACTORS......Page 424
D. NUTRITIONAL FACTORS......Page 426
A. BLANCHING......Page 428
B. PARTIAL DEHYDRATION AND FORMULATION TECHNIQUES......Page 430
1. Texture......Page 431
2. Pigments, Color, and Nutrients......Page 434
3. Aroma Compounds......Page 436
IV. SAFETY ASPECTS OF FROZEN FRUITS......Page 437
B. PROCESSING BEFORE FREEZING......Page 438
1. Microbial Contamination of Osmotic Solution......Page 439
V. CONCLUSIONS......Page 440
REFERENCES......Page 441
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 445
B. MILK SNF FRACTION......Page 446
C. FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION......Page 447
III. ICE CREAM AND FROZEN DAIRY DESSERTS......Page 448
1. Fat......Page 449
4. Stabilizers......Page 450
1. Mix Manufacture......Page 451
2. Ice Cream Freezing......Page 452
C. STRUCTURAL CHANGES OCCURRING DURING FREEZING......Page 454
D. FACTORS AFFECTING QUALITY......Page 455
E. FACTORS AFFECTING SAFETY......Page 456
A. FLUID MILK AND CONDENSED MILKS......Page 457
B. CREAM AND BUTTER......Page 458
V. CONCLUSIONS......Page 459
REFERENCES......Page 460
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 462
A. BRIEF HISTORY OF FROZEN READY MEALS......Page 463
2. UK Market......Page 464
3. Range of Meals Available......Page 465
4. Consumer Acceptability of Frozen Ready Meals......Page 467
A. PRETREATMENT OF MEAL COMPONENTS......Page 468
2. Blanching Vegetables......Page 469
1. Cook–Assemble–Freeze......Page 470
IV. QUALITY AND SAFETY ISSUES......Page 471
1. Rancidity Development......Page 472
2. Texture, Color, and Drip Loss Measurement......Page 473
C. EFFECT OF FLUCTUATING STORAGE CONDITIONS ON EATING QUALITY......Page 474
1. During Processing and Storage......Page 475
2. During Thawing and Reheating......Page 476
E. FACTORS AFFECTING NUTRITIONAL QUALITY OF FROZEN MEALS......Page 477
V. CONCLUSIONS......Page 478
REFERENCES......Page 479
CONTENTS......Page 483
A. WESTERN EUROPEAN BAKERY MARKET......Page 484
3. Sourdough (Levain) Method......Page 485
2. Water......Page 486
6. Lipids......Page 487
D. SENSORY CHARACTERISTICS OF BAKERY PRODUCTS......Page 488
B. REFRIGERATION APPLIED TO BREAD DOUGH......Page 489
C. REFRIGERATION APPLIED TO RICH DOUGH......Page 490
1. Mechanical Refrigeration......Page 491
B. PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH PARTIALLY BAKED PRODUCTS......Page 492
1. Freezing Effect on Yeast Performance — Requirements and Suggestions......Page 493
2. Processing Parameters — Requirements and Suggestions......Page 494
4. Additives — Requirements and Suggestions......Page 495
A. SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS......Page 496
B. QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS......Page 497
C. QUALITY AND SAFETY CONTROLS......Page 499
VI. CONCLUSIONS......Page 500
REFERENCES......Page 501
II. SELECTION OF RAW MATERIALS FOR THE PROCESSING OF FROZEN EGGS AND EGG PRODUCTS......Page 505
A. BEFORE BREAKING......Page 506
A. MICROBIAL ASPECTS: PASTEURIZATION......Page 507
B. RHEOLOGICAL ASPECTS: MINIMIZING GELATION REACTION......Page 509
1. Addition of Cryoprotectant......Page 512
IV. FREEZING AND PACKAGING OF EGG PRODUCTS......Page 513
B. FUNCTIONAL ASPECTS......Page 514
VI. CONCLUSIONS......Page 517
REFERENCES......Page 518
Part IV: Monitoring and Measuring Techniques for Quality and Safety......Page 521
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 522
III. COLOR......Page 523
IV. TEXTURE......Page 526
A. SHEAR TEST......Page 527
C. TEXTURAL PROFILE ANALYSIS......Page 529
V. JUICINESS......Page 530
VI. FLAVOR......Page 531
REFERENCES......Page 532
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 535
C. IRRADIATION......Page 536
A. MEASUREMENT OF ENZYME ACTIVITY......Page 537
A. ASCORBIC ACID AND ORGANIC ACID MEASUREMENTS......Page 538
V. METHODS TO ASSESS LIPID DEGRADATION DURING FREEZING OR FROZEN STORAGE......Page 539
VI. METHODS TO ASSESS PROTEIN DEGRADATION DURING FREEZING OR FROZEN STORAGE......Page 544
VIII. CHEMICAL MEASUREMENTS TO MONITOR CHEMICAL AND MICROBIAL ADDITIVES/CONTAMINANTS IN FROZEN FOODS......Page 550
REFERENCES......Page 553
CONTENTS......Page 560
A. FREEZING METHOD AND RATE......Page 562
B. STORAGE CONDITIONS......Page 563
II. SHELF-LIFE......Page 564
A. FRUITS AND VEGETABLES......Page 565
D. ICE CREAM......Page 566
A. SPECIFIC TYPES OF SENSORY TESTS......Page 567
B. TYPES OF QUESTIONS TO BE ANSWERED......Page 568
D. SAMPLES TO BE USED FOR EVALUATION......Page 569
G. TESTS FOR SHELF-LIFE......Page 570
1. Example 1 — Product Development of Frozen Raw Dough Biscuit......Page 571
3. Example 3 — Shelf-Life of Frozen Biscuit Dough......Page 572
REFERENCES......Page 574
CONTENTS......Page 576
II. FOODBORNE ILLNESS......Page 577
B. FACTORS CAUSING FOODBORNE DISEASE......Page 580
D. ECONOMIC BURDEN OF FOODBORNE ILLNESS......Page 582
A. SAFETY OF FROZEN FOOD......Page 583
B. FREEZING AND MICROORGANISMS......Page 584
1. Freeze Injury......Page 585
2. Microbial Survival......Page 586
A. MICROBIOLOGICAL SAMPLING PLANS AND GUIDELINES......Page 587
1. Sample Preparation......Page 589
a. Aerobic Colony Count......Page 590
3. Indicator Bacteria: Enterobacteriaceae and E. coli......Page 591
a. Salmonella sp.......Page 592
5. Rapid Methods......Page 593
REFERENCES......Page 595
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 601
B. DETERIORATION MECHANISMS......Page 602
C. HIGH-QUALITY LIFE (HQL)......Page 606
D. ACCELERATED MEASUREMENT AND THE Q10 APPROACH......Page 608
V. CONCLUSIONS......Page 609
REFERENCES......Page 610
Part V: Packaging of Frozen Foods......Page 611
CONTENTS......Page 612
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 613
A. CONTAINMENT......Page 614
1. Frozen Food Packaging Materials......Page 615
a. Boxes/Cartons......Page 617
c. Heat-in-bag Pouches......Page 618
d. Lidded Trays and Pans......Page 619
1. Laws and Regulations on Food Labeling......Page 622
D. CONVENIENCE......Page 623
1. Life Cycle Analysis......Page 624
c. Package Recycling......Page 625
3. Laws and Regulations on Packaging Waste and Recycling......Page 626
a. Packaging Component Migration......Page 627
a. Laws and Regulations on Tamper-Evident Packaging......Page 628
III. TRENDS IN FROZEN FOOD PACKAGING......Page 629
C. NONTHERMAL FOOD PROCESSING TECHNIQUES IN COMBINATION WITH FREEZING......Page 630
F. INTELLIGENT PACKAGING......Page 631
G. CONSUMER-FRIENDLY PACKAGING......Page 632
REFERENCES......Page 633
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 638
1. Low-Density Polyethylene......Page 639
B. ETHYLENE VINYL ACETATE COPOLYMER......Page 640
C. POLYPROPYLENE......Page 641
F. POLYETHYLENE TEREPHTHALATE......Page 642
H. NYLON......Page 643
III. TYPES OF PLASTIC PACKAGE......Page 645
C. FROZEN FISH......Page 646
VI. CONCLUSIONS......Page 647
REFERENCES......Page 648
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 649
II. DESIGN......Page 650
A. BARRIER PROPERTIES......Page 651
B. MOISTURE SORPTION PROPERTIES......Page 653
C. INSULATING PROPERTIES......Page 654
D. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES......Page 655
IV. PRODUCT STABILITY......Page 656
VI. MODELING......Page 657
VII. CONCLUSIONS......Page 658
REFERENCES......Page 659
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 662
1. Form......Page 663
2. Materials......Page 664
3. Characteristics......Page 665
5. Waste Disposal......Page 666
1. Form......Page 667
3. Characteristics......Page 668
B. MATERIALS......Page 669
D. USE......Page 670
V. CONCLUSIONS......Page 671
REFERENCES......Page 672
CONTENTS......Page 673
II. BAG MAKING......Page 674
IV. CANNING......Page 675
A. CARTONS FOR LIQUID PRODUCTS......Page 676
B. CARTONS FOR SOLID PRODUCTS......Page 677
2. Semiautomatic Horizontal Cartoning Machine......Page 680
a. Carton Feeds......Page 681
1. Vacuum Filling......Page 682
2. Constant Volume Filling......Page 683
3. Gravity Filling......Page 684
5. Pressure–Vacuum Filling......Page 685
B. FILLING OF SOLIDS......Page 686
1. Volumetric Filling......Page 687
3. Filling by Weight......Page 688
b. Perforated Disc......Page 689
A. VERTICAL FORM/FILL/SEAL MACHINE......Page 690
B. HORIZONTAL FORM/FILL/SEAL MACHINES......Page 692
2. Vertical Machines......Page 694
D. THERMOFORM/FILL/SEAL MACHINE......Page 695
A. BAR SEALING......Page 696
D. ULTRASONIC SEALING......Page 698
H. HOT MELT SEALING......Page 700
A. NOZZLE-TYPE VACUUM PACKAGING MACHINE......Page 701
B. CHAMBER-TYPE VACUUM PACKAGING MACHINE......Page 702
C. SKIN-TYPE VACUUM-PACKAGING MACHINE......Page 703
X. CONCLUSIONS......Page 704
REFERENCES......Page 705
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 706
A. ACTIVE PACKAGING TECHNOLOGIES......Page 707
B. INTELLIGENT PACKAGING TECHNOLOGIES......Page 710
D. EDIBLE FILMS AND COATINGS......Page 713
III. CONCLUSIONS......Page 715
REFERENCES......Page 716