Handbook of Food Nanotechnology: Applications and Approaches

Cover
Handbook of Food Nanotechnology: Applications and Approaches
Copyright
Dedication
In the Name of GOD,
Contents
List of contributors
Preface
1 Fundamentals of food nanotechnology
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Application of nanotechnology in food processing
		1.2.1 Nanofluid thermal processing of food products
		1.2.2 Nanofiltration in the food industry
		1.2.3 Nanoadsorbents and nanoporous materials for the food industry
		1.2.4 Production of food nanomaterials by specialized equipment
	1.3 Application of nanotechnology in food ingredients
		1.3.1 Nanoemulsions and nanosized ingredients for food formulations
		1.3.2 Green synthesis of metal nanoparticles by plant extracts and biopolymers
		1.3.3 Nanoencapsulation of food ingredients
		1.3.4 Enhancing the bioavailability of nutrients by nanodelivery systems
	1.4 Application of nanotechnology for improving food quality and packaging
		1.4.1 Metal nanoparticles as antimicrobial agents in food packaging
		1.4.2 Nanobased aptasensors for detection of food contaminants
		1.4.3 Nanoparticles/nanofibers for checking adulteration/spoilage of food products
		1.4.4 Nanoencapsulated bioactive components for active food packaging
		1.4.5 Reinforced nanocomposites for food packaging
	1.5 Characterization and safety of food nanomaterials
		1.5.1 Characterization and analysis of nanomaterials in foods
		1.5.2 Safety and regulatory issues of nanomaterials in foods
		1.5.3 Consumer expectations and attitudes towards nanomaterials in foods
	1.6 Conclusion and further remarks
	References
Section 1: Application of nanotechnology in food processing
2 Nanofluid thermal processing of food products
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Thermophysical properties of nanofluids
		2.2.1 Thermal conductivity of nanofluids
		2.2.2 Viscosity of nanofluids
		2.2.3 Density of nanofluids
		2.2.4 Specific heat capacity of nanofluids
	2.3 Preparation of nanofluids
	2.4 Application of nanofluids in different heat exchangers
		2.4.1 Heat transfer enhancement by nanofluids
		2.4.2 Pressure drop and pumping power
		2.4.3 Thermal performance factor and the effectiveness of heat exchangers
		2.4.4 Entropy generation and exergy efficiency
		2.4.5 Agglomeration and fouling
	2.5 Application of nanofluids in thermal processing of food products
	2.6 Conclusion and further remarks
	References
3 Nanofiltration in the food industry
	Abbreviations
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Generalities of nanofiltration membranes
	3.3 Application of nanofiltration in fruit juice and plant extract processing
	3.4 Winemaking applications of nanofiltration
	3.5 Nanofiltration in dairy processing
		3.5.1 Concentration and demineralization of whey
		3.5.2 Nanofiltration as an alternative for the concentration and demineralization of ultrafiltration–whey permeate
		3.5.3 Lactic acid recovery by nanofiltration
	3.6 Nanofiltration in the sugar industry
	3.7 Role of nanofiltration in valorization of high-added value compounds from food industry wastewaters
	3.8 Concluding remarks
	References
4 Nanoadsorbents and nanoporous materials for the food industry
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Adsorption by different nanoadsorbents
		4.2.1 Clay minerals
			4.2.1.1 Structure of clay minerals
			4.2.1.2 Adsorbent clays
			4.2.1.3 Modification of montmorillonite
				4.2.1.3.1 Organic modification
				4.2.1.3.2 Inorganic modification
		4.2.2 Activated carbon
			4.2.2.1 Crystalline structure of active carbon and its porous structure
			4.2.2.2 Porous structure of active carbon
			4.2.2.3 Adsorption isotherm equations for active carbon
			4.2.2.4 Active carbon applications in the food industry
		4.2.3 Zero-valent iron nanoparticles
			4.2.3.1 Applications of zero-valent iron nanoparticles in the food industry
			4.2.3.2 Safety and toxicity of zero-valent iron nanoparticles
		4.2.4 Graphite family: graphene, graphene oxide, and reduced graphene oxide
			4.2.4.1 Graphene
			4.2.4.2 Graphene oxide
			4.2.4.3 Reduced GO
			4.2.4.4 Synthesis methods
			4.2.4.5 Properties and characterization
			4.2.4.6 Functionalization
			4.2.4.7 Graphene/ graphene oxide-based nanocomposites
				4.2.4.7.1 In situ polymerization
				4.2.4.7.2 Solution blending
				4.2.4.7.3 Melt mixing
				4.2.4.7.4 Layer-by-layer assembly
			4.2.4.8 Application of graphene in the food industries
				4.2.4.8.1 Applications in the food nanosensors
				4.2.4.8.2 Evaluation of food composition
			4.2.4.9 Toxicity of graphene and graphene oxide
			4.2.4.10 Future trends
	4.3 Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
5 Production of food nanomaterials by specialized equipment
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 High-pressure techniques
		5.2.1 MicrofluidizerTM homogenization process
		5.2.2 High-pressure homogenizer
	5.3 Sonication
	5.4 Electrohydrodynamic devices
		5.4.1 Solution blowing
	5.5 Nano spray dryer
	5.6 Micro/nanofluidic systems
	5.7 Vortex fluidic device
	5.8 Ball milling
	5.9 Membrane technology
	5.10 Conclusions and future perspectives
	Acknowledgment(s)
	References
Section 2: Application of nanotechnology in food ingredients
6 Nanoemulsions and nanosized ingredients for food formulations
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Nanoemulsions in food processing
		6.2.1 Classification of nanoemulsions for food industries
		6.2.2 Preparation methods of nanoemulsions
			6.2.2.1 High-energy methods
			6.2.2.2 Low-energy methods
			6.2.2.3 Selection of emulsifier or coemulsifier and compatibility of the food processes
		6.2.3 Applications of nanoemulsions and their effect on food
			6.2.3.1 Encapsulation of active ingredients
			6.2.3.2 Delivery of active ingredients
			6.2.3.3 Preservation
			6.2.3.4 Improvement of nutritional properties
			6.2.3.5 Modifying structural or textural properties
		6.2.4 Pickering nanoemulsions and stabilization of emulsified foods
	6.3 Polymeric nanoparticles in food processing
		6.3.1 Definitions and classification of polymeric nanoparticles
		6.3.2 Preparation methods of polymeric nanoparticles
		6.3.3 Characterization of polymeric nanoparticles
		6.3.4 Mechanism of active delivery by polymeric nanoparticles
		6.3.5 Application of polymeric nanoparticles in food processing
		6.3.6 Effect of polymeric nanoparticles on physicochemical properties of food during storage
	6.4 Nanofibers, nanolaminates, and nanocrystals
		6.4.1 Preparation methods
			6.4.1.1 Nanofibers
			6.4.1.2 Nanolaminates
			6.4.1.3 Nanocrystals
		6.4.2 Use of nanolaminates in edible coating materials
		6.4.3 Physicochemical, textural, and color changes in nanocoated foods
			6.4.3.1 Effect of nanocoatings on the physicochemical properties of food
			6.4.3.2 Effect of nanocoatings on textural changes
			6.4.3.3 Effect of nanocoatings on color changes associated with shelf life
		6.4.4 Effect of nanocrystals and other nanosize systems on color and sensorial aspects
	6.5 Toxicological and normative regulatory issues of nanoparticles in food processing
	6.6 Conclusions and future trends
	References
7 Green synthesis of metal nanoparticles by plant extracts and biopolymers
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Metallic nanoparticles and green chemistry
		7.2.1 Silver nanoparticles
		7.2.2 Gold nanoparticles
	7.3 Synthesis of metal nanoparticles using living organisms and biomolecules
		7.3.1 Plants and algae
		7.3.2 Fungi and yeasts
		7.3.3 Other natural compounds
	7.4 Applications of green metal nanoparticles
	7.5 Conclusion
	References
8 Nanoencapsulation of bioactive food ingredients
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 A brief overview of bioactive ingredients
		8.2.1 Polyphenols
			8.2.1.1 Classification and the structure
			8.2.1.2 Polyphenols in food
			8.2.1.3 Health benefits and stabilities
		8.2.2 Carotenoids
			8.2.2.1 Classification and the structure
			8.2.2.2 Carotenoids in food
			8.2.2.3 Health benefits and stabilities
		8.2.3 Vitamins
			8.2.3.1 Classification and the structure
			8.2.3.2 Vitamins in food
			8.2.3.3 Health benefits and stabilities
		8.2.4 Minerals
			8.2.4.1 Classification and the structure
			8.2.4.2 Minerals in food
			8.2.4.3 Health benefits and stabilities
		8.2.5 Essential oils
			8.2.5.1 Classification and the structure
			8.2.5.2 Essential oils in food
			8.2.5.3 Health benefits and stabilities
	8.3 Encapsulation methods for nanodelivery of bioactive compounds
		8.3.1 Nanoemulsification
		8.3.2 Nano spray drying
		8.3.3 Coacervation
		8.3.4 Nanoliposomes and niosomes
		8.3.5 Cubosomes and hexosomes
		8.3.6 Solid lipid nanoparticles/nanocarriers
		8.3.7 Nanostructured lipid carriers
		8.3.8 Complexation/conjugation with proteins
		8.3.9 Inclusion complexation within cyclodextrins and amylose nanohelices
		8.3.10 Nanoprecipitation (solvent displacement)
	8.4 Carrier materials used for nanoencapsulation of bioactive compounds
		8.4.1 Proteins
		8.4.2 Polysaccharides
		8.4.3 Lipids
		8.4.4 Cyclodextrins
		8.4.5 Surfactants
		8.4.6 Combinations of different nanocarrier materials
	8.5 Challenges toward nanodelivery of bioactive compounds in functional foods
	8.6 Concluding remarks and future direction
	References
	Further reading
9 Enhancing the bioavailability of nutrients by nanodelivery systems
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Desolvation/nanoprecipitation/solvent displacement
	9.3 Complex coacervation
	9.4 Layer-by-layer assembly
		9.4.1 Spherical nanoparticle formation through layer-by-layer assembly
		9.4.2 Nanotubular formation through layer-by-layer assembly
	9.5 Nano/microemulsions
	9.6 Conclusion
	References
Section 3: Application of nanotechnology for improving food quality and packaging
10 Metal nanoparticles as antimicrobial agents in food packaging
	10.1 Introduction to polymers/biopolymers in food packaging
		10.1.1 Solid-state additives in food packaging
		10.1.2 Metal nanoparticles in food packaging
	10.2 Nanoscale metal oxides in antimicrobial packaging
		10.2.1 Copper oxide-based nanomaterials
		10.2.2 Titanium oxide-based nanomaterials
		10.2.3 Zinc oxide-based nanomaterials
		10.2.4 Magnesium oxide-based nanoparticles
		10.2.5 Gold and silver nanoparticles
	10.3 Layered nonmetal nanomaterials
		10.3.1 Silicon dioxide nanoparticles
		10.3.2 Montmorillonite nanoclay
	10.4 The influence of metal nanoparticles on different properties of food packaging materials
		10.4.1 Barrier properties
		10.4.2 Mechanical properties
		10.4.3 Thermal properties
		10.4.4 Morphology
		10.4.5 Reactions/interactions
	10.5 Antimicrobial influence of metal nanoparticles in food packaging materials
		10.5.1 The impact of metal NPs on G+/− bacteria
		10.5.2 Fungi (molds/yeasts)
		10.5.3 Parasites/viruses
	10.6 Toxicological aspects, safety, and migration of metal nanoparticles into food products
		10.6.1 The safety issues of human contact to nanoparticles
		10.6.2 Regulation for nanomaterials associated with food contact materials
			10.6.2.1 European Community
			10.6.2.2 US Food and Drug Administration
	10.7 Conclusion and further remarks
	Acknowledgment
	References
11 Nanobiosensors for food analysis
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Nanomaterials and other related tools used to construct biosensors
		11.2.1 Metallic nanoparticles and semiconductor nanomaterials
		11.2.2 Carbon nanomaterials
		11.2.3 Magnetic nanoparticles
	11.3 Bioreceptors
		11.3.1 Surface functionalization of nanomaterials with bioreceptors
	11.4 Transduction mechanisms
	11.5 Electrochemical nanobiosensors for food safety and control
		11.5.1 Electrochemical biosensing with integrated nanomaterials and hybrid nanostructures
			11.5.1.1 Metallic nanoparticles
			11.5.1.2 Carbon and semiconductor nanomaterials
		11.5.2 Electrochemical biosensing with nanopore membranes
		11.5.3 Field-effect transistor-based biosensors
	11.6 Optical nanobiosensors for food safety and control
		11.6.1 Colorimetric biosensors
		11.6.2 Fluorescent biosensors
		11.6.3 Localized surface plasmon resonance-based biosensors
		11.6.4 Surface-enhanced Raman scattering-based biosensors
	11.7 Nanomechanical biosensors for food safety and control
		11.7.1 Scanning probe microscopy-based biosensors
		11.7.2 Microcantilever-based biosensors
	11.8 Micromotor-based (bio)sensing approaches
	11.9 Conclusions and future directions
	Acknowledgements
	References
12 Nanoparticles/nanofibers for checking adulteration/spoilage of food products
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Metal and metal oxide nanoparticles-based nanosensors
		12.2.1 Gold nanoparticles
		12.2.2 Silver nanoparticles
	12.3 Carbon nanomaterial-based nanosensors
		12.3.1 Carbon nanotubes
		12.3.2 Graphene and its derivatives
		12.3.3 Carbon nanofibers
	12.4 Magnetic nanoparticles-based nanosensors
	12.5 Nanofiber-based nanosensors
	12.6 Conclusion
	References
13 Nanoencapsulated bioactive components for active food packaging
	Abbreviations
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Bioactive compounds
	13.3 Nanoencapsulation of bioactive ingredients
	13.4 Different bioactive-loaded nanocarriers applied in active food packaging
		13.4.1 Phenolic compounds
		13.4.2 Carotenoids
		13.4.3 Essential oils
		13.4.4 Peptides and antimicrobial agents
		13.4.5 Vitamins
	13.5 Effects of bioactive-loaded nanocarriers on packaging properties
		13.5.1 Effect on antimicrobial properties
		13.5.2 Effect on antioxidant properties
		13.5.3 Effect on mechanical properties
		13.5.4 Effect on barrier properties
	13.6 Controlled release and migration of bioactive compounds from active food packaging
	13.7 Application of active packaging loaded with nanoencapsulated bioactives in various food products
	13.8 Perspective and future trends
	References
14 Reinforced nanocomposites for food packaging
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Inorganic nanomaterials used in nanocomposites for food packaging
		14.2.1 Oxides used in nanocomposites
			14.2.1.1 Zinc oxide
			14.2.1.2 Titanium dioxide
			14.2.1.3 Silicon dioxide (silica)
			14.2.1.4 Other oxides
		14.2.2 Nanoclays as polymer reinforcement fillers
	14.3 Nanocellulose-based nanocomposites for food packaging
		14.3.1 Nanocellulose production from agroindustrial biomass
			14.3.1.1 Case study: production of nanocellulose from soybean straw by enzymatic method
		14.3.2 Nanocellulose as a reinforcement in biodegradable polymers
			14.3.2.1 Nanocellulose–polylactic acid composites
			14.3.2.2 Nanocellulose–starch composites
			14.3.2.3 Nanocellulose–chitosan composites
			14.3.2.4 Nanocellulose–polycaprolactone composites
			14.3.2.5 Nanocellulose–alginate composites
			14.3.2.6 Nanocellulose composites with proteins
	14.4 Other bionanomaterials used as reinforcement fillers in food packaging
	14.5 Conclusion and future trends
	References
Section 4: Characterization and safety of food nanomaterials
15 Characterization and analysis of nanomaterials in foods
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Morphological and microstructural analysis of nanomaterials in foods
		15.2.1 Optical microscopy
			15.2.1.1 Bright field microscopy
			15.2.1.2 Dark field microscopy
			15.2.1.3 Ultramicroscopy
			15.2.1.4 Polarizing microscopy
			15.2.1.5 Fluorescence microscopy
			15.2.1.6 Laser scattering confocal microscopy
		15.2.2 Electron microscopy
			15.2.2.1 Scanning electron microscopy
			15.2.2.2 Transmission electron microscopy
			15.2.2.3 Analysis of isolated food nanoparticles by electron microscopy
			15.2.2.4 Analysis of nanoparticles by environmental scanning electron microscopy
		15.2.3 Atomic force microscopy
	15.3 Analysis of particle size and size distribution of nanomaterials in foods
		15.3.1 Impacts of nanoparticle shape and size on food quality and safety
			15.3.1.1 Size versus stability
			15.3.1.2 Size versus appearance
			15.3.1.3 Size versus bioavailability
			15.3.1.4 Size and shape versus toxicity
		15.3.2 Measurement of nanoparticle size by light scattering techniques
			15.3.2.1 Static light scattering
			15.3.2.2 Dynamic light scattering
		15.3.3 Nanoparticle tracking analysis
		15.3.4 Small-angle X-ray scattering
		15.3.5 Differential centrifugal sedimentation
	15.4 Surface charge and zeta potential analysis of nanomaterials in foods
		15.4.1 Surface charge of nanomaterials in foods
		15.4.2 Measurement of zeta potential (ζ)
	15.5 Analysis of crystallinity and phase transition in food nanomaterials
		15.5.1 Crystallinity and phase transition in lipid-based nanoparticles
		15.5.2 Glass transition temperature (Tg) in polymer-based nanoparticles
		15.5.3 Measurement of crystallinity and phase transition in food nanomaterials
			15.5.3.1 X-ray diffraction
			15.5.3.2 Differential scanning calorimetry
	15.6 Mechanical characteristics and analysis techniques of nanomaterials in food
		15.6.1 Impacts of mechanical properties of food nanoparticles on food quality
		15.6.2 Instrumental mechanical assessment of liquid and soft nanoparticles in food
			15.6.2.1 Oscillatory tests; viscoelasticity of food materials
			15.6.2.2 Colloidal probe atomic force microscopy
			15.6.2.3 Micropipette technique
			15.6.2.4 Osmotic pressure method
			15.6.2.5 Large deformation measurements
	15.7 Future trends
	Acknowledgment
	References
16 Safety and regulatory issues of nanomaterials in foods
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Nanofood market
	16.3 Risk assessment of nanostructures used in foods
		16.3.1 Detection and characterization of nanoparticles in foods
		16.3.2 Exposure routes to food nanoingredients
			16.3.2.1 Dermal exposure
			16.3.2.2 Inhalation
			16.3.2.3 Ingestion
		16.3.3 Toxicological end points and outcomes
			16.3.3.1 Toxicity of organic nanoparticles
			16.3.3.2 Toxicity of inorganic nanoparticles
		16.3.4 Approaches for risk assessment of nanoparticles
	16.4 Public perception and concerns
	16.5 Regulations in using nanomaterials for foods
		16.5.1 Regulatory aspects of nanoparticles
		16.5.2 Current legislations
			16.5.2.1 The United States
			16.5.2.2 Europe
			16.5.2.3 Canada
			16.5.2.4 Australia and New Zealand
			16.5.2.5 NonEU countries (Switzerland, Turkey, and Russia)
			16.5.2.6 Asia
			16.5.2.7 South Africa
			16.5.2.8 South America
	16.6 Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
17 Consumer expectations and attitudes toward nanomaterials in foods
	17.1 Nanotechnology application in food industry
		17.1.1 Benefits of nanotechnology in food packaging
		17.1.2 Potential risks of nanotechnology applications
	17.2 Consumer attitudes toward nanotechnology in food
		17.2.1 Consumer acceptance of food nanotechnology
		17.2.2 Factors affecting consumer acceptance of food nanotechnology
			17.2.2.1 General attitudes toward new technology
			17.2.2.2 Environmental and health concern
			17.2.2.3 Preference for prolonging food shelf life
			17.2.2.4 Trust in institution
			17.2.2.5 Reliance on governmental regulation
	17.3 Case study—consumer preference and information provision in nanopackaged food
		17.3.1 Theoretical framework and proposed hypothesis
		17.3.2 Research material and methodology
			17.3.2.1 Auction experiment
			17.3.2.2 Products
			17.3.2.3 Participants
			17.3.2.4 Auction design
			17.3.2.5 Auction procedure
			17.3.2.6 Structural equation model
		17.3.3 Analysis results
			17.3.3.1 Demographics and bidding average
			17.3.3.2 Measurement statistics
			17.3.3.3 Model estimates
		17.3.4 Discussion
	17.4 Conclusion and implications
	References
Index
Back Cover