Handbook of Food Bioactive Ingredients : Properties and Applications

Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
1 An Overview of Different Food Bioactive Ingredients
	Introduction
	Nutrition and Chronic Diseases
	Bioactive Ingredients and Functional Foods
	Natural Sources of Bioactive Compounds
	Phenolic Compounds
	Carotenoids and Phytosterols
	Bioactive Peptides (BPs)
		Marine Bioactive Peptides
		Nonmarine Animal Bioactive Peptides
		Plant Bioactive Peptides
		Microbial Bioactive Peptides
		Essential Fatty Acids (EFAs)
	Live Organisms
	Essential Oils (EOs) and Oleoresins
	Vitamins and Minerals
	Other Bioactive Compounds
	Conclusion
	References
Part I: Phenolic Compounds
	2 Hydroxybenzoic Acids
		Introduction
			Salicylic Acid
				Chemistry and Structure
				Safety and Oral Delivery
				Functionality and Functional Food Applications
			P-Hydroxybenzoic Acid
				Chemistry and Structure
				Safety and Oral Delivery
				Functionality and Functional Food Applications
			Protocatechuic Acid
				Chemistry and Structure
				Safety and Oral Delivery
				Functionality and Functional Food Applications
			Gentisic Acid
				Chemistry and Structure
				Safety and Oral Delivery
				Functionality and Functional Food Applications
			3,5-Dihydroxybenzoic Acid
				Chemistry and Structure
				Safety and Oral Delivery
				Functionality and Functional Food Applications
			Pyrocatechuic Acid
				Chemistry and Structure
				Safety and Oral Delivery
				Functionality and Functional Food Applications
			Vanillic Acid
				Chemistry and Structure
				Safety and Oral Delivery
				Functionality and Functional Food Applications
			Syringic Acid
				Chemistry and Structure
				Safety and Oral Delivery
				Functionality and Functional Food Applications
			Gallic Acid
				Chemistry and Structure
				Safety and Oral Delivery
				Functionality and Functional Food Applications
			Ellagic Acid
				Chemistry and Structure
				Safety and Oral Delivery
				Functionality and Functional Food Applications
		Conclusion
		References
	3 Hydroxycinnamic Acids
		Introduction
		Chemistry and Functionality of Hydroxycinnamic Acids
		Biosynthetic Pathways of Hydroxycinnamic Acids
		Occurrence, Separation, Analysis, and Applications as Food Ingredients of Specific Hydroxycinnamic Acids
			Cinnamic Acid
			p-Coumaric Acid
			Caffeic Acid
			Ferulic and Sinapic Acids
			Chlorogenic Acids
			Rosmarinic, Chicoric, p-Coutaric, Caftaric, Fertaric Acids, and Other Minor Hydroxycinnamic Acid Derivatives
		Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
	4 Flavones
		Introduction
		Chemistry and Functionality of Flavones
		Biosynthetic Pathways of Flavones
		Metabolism of Flavones
		Chemical Stability, Encapsulation, and Incorporation of Flavones into Food Products
		Occurrence, Separation, Analysis, and Applications as Food Ingredients of Specific Flavones
			Flavone Aglycones Containing Hydroxyl Groups
			Flavone Aglycones Containing Hydroxyl and Methoxy Groups
			Flavone Aglycones Containing Methoxy Groups
			Flavone Glycosides
		Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
	5 Flavonols
		Introduction
		Chemistry and Functionality of Flavonols
		Biosynthetic Pathways of Flavonols
		Chemical Stability, Encapsulation, and Incorporation of Flavonols into Food Products
		Occurrence, Separation, Analysis, and Applications as Food Ingredients of Specific Flavonols
			Flavonol Aglycones
			Flavonol Glycosides
		Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
	6 Flavanones
		Introduction
		Chemistry and Functionality of Flavanones
		Biosynthetic Pathways and Metabolism of Flavanones
		Chemical Stability, Toxicity, Safety, Encapsulation, and Incorporation of Flavanones into Food Products
		Occurrence, Separation, Analysis, and Applications as Food Ingredients of Specific Flavanones
			Flavanone Aglycones
			Flavanone Glycosides
		Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
	7 Flavanols
		Introduction
		Flavan-3-ols
			Chemistry and Structure
			Properties in Foods
			Main Dietary Sources
		Health Benefits
			Oxidative Stress
			Immunity
			Cardiovascular Health
			Metabolism
			Exercise Performance
			Cognitive Function and Mood
			Gut Health
			Skin Health
		Nutrikinetics and Safety
			Bioavailability and Absorption
			Dietary Interactions
			Safety and Toxicity
		Chemical Stability of Flavan-3-ols
			Stability During Processing
			Stability During Storage
		Incorporation into Functional Foods
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	8 Isoflavones
		Introduction
		Isoflavones in Human Nutrition and Health
			Structure and Classification of Isoflavones
			Sources of Isoflavones for Humans
			Metabolism of Isoflavones in Human
				Small Intestine
				Large Intestine (Colon)
				Factors Influencing Equol-Producing Bacteria and Equol Production
			Health Effects of Isoflavones
				Health Effects of Isoflavones Caused by Estrogen Hormone-Like Actions
					Anticarcinogenic Effects
					Cardioprotective Effects
					Antiosteoporotic Effects
					Antimenopausal Effects
					Effects on Cognitive Functions
				Health Effects of Isoflavones Caused by Nonhormonal Actions
					Antithyroid Effects
					Antidiabetic Effect
					Antioxidant Effects
			Delivery of Isoflavones Using Functional Food Products
			Safety and Toxicity of Isoflavones
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	9 Anthocyanins
		Introduction
		Chemical Structure
		Chemical Stability
		Technological and Biological Functionality
		Safety and Toxicity
		Food Applications of Anthocyanins
			Functional Foods
			Dietary Supplements
			Smart Food Packaging
		Technological Challenges for Incorporating Anthocyanins into Functional Foods
			Effects of Processing and Storage on Anthocyanin Stability
			Effects of Food Matrix on Anthocyanin Stability
			Strategies to Enhance Anthocyanin Stability
		Conclusion
		References
	10 Chalcones
		Introduction
		Food Chalcones
		Chalcones Bioavailability and Metabolism
		Biological Activities of Food Chalcones
			Antimicrobial Activity of Natural Chalcones
			Tumor Cell Cytotoxic Activities of Natural Chalcones
			Enzyme Inhibitors and Enzyme Inducers
			Cardioprotective Effects
			Neuroprotective Effect
			Antidiabetic Activities
		Chalcones Obtaining Methods
			Chalcones of Natural Origin
			Chalcones of Synthetic Origin
		Food Sources: Extraction Methods (Green Synthesis and Solvent-Free Synthesis/Chemical)
		Chalcones´ Chemical Stability
		Encapsulation Methods of Chalcones for Food Applications
			Microencapsulation
			Nanoformulations
		Applications for the Food Industry
			Biotransformation of Chalcones for Food and Health Utilization
			Functional Foods
		Conclusion
		References
	11 Ellagitannins
		Introduction
		Ellagitannin Chemical Properties and Dietary Sources
			Distribution of Ellagitannins Throughout Fruiting Bodies
		Digestion of Ellagitannins
			Microbial Biotransformation of Ellagitannins and Ellagic Acid to Urolithins
		Ellagitannin Bioavailability
			The Influence of the Food Matrix on Ellagitannin Bioavailability
		Health Benefits of Ellagitannins
		Toxicology
		Formulation Strategies to Improve Oral Bioavailability of Ellagitannins
			Ellagic Acid Derivatives
			Ellagic Acid Delivery Systems
			Ellagitannin Supplements and Functional Food Ingredient
			Quality Control and Stability Testing During Ellagitannin Product Development
		Conclusion
		References
	12 Gallotannins
		Introduction
		Chemical Characterization of GTs
		Degradation and Synthesis of GTs
		Distribution and Distinction
		Physiological Activities of GTs
			Antioxidant
			Anti-inflammatory
			Sensory Reinforcement
			Antidiabetic
			Antibacterial
		Application of GTs
			Food Processing
			Food Package
			Plant Protection
			Phylaxiology
		Safety and Toxicity
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	13 Procyanidins
		Introduction
		Procyanidins: A General Overview of Structure, Sources, and Health Benefits
			General Structure of Procyanidins
			Main Derivatives and Structures of Procyanidins
			The Sources of Procyanidins
			Beneficial Properties of Procyanidins
		Bioavailability of Procyanidins
			Bioavailability Studies of Procyanidins by Different Models
			Digestion Stability of Procyanidins
		Extraction and Encapsulation Methods of Procyanidins
			Extraction of Procyanidins from Different Sources
			Solid-Liquid Extraction of Procyanidins
			Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Procyanidins
		Encapsulation of Procyanidins by Various Methods
			The Significance of the Encapsulation for the Appropriate Use of Procyanidins
			Encapsulation of Procyanidins by Spray Drying
			Encapsulation of Procyanidins by Nanoemulsion
			Combined Methods for the Encapsulation of Procyanidins
			Liposomal Structure of Procyanidins for the Encapsulation
			Other Methods for the Encapsulation of Procyanidins
				Microfluidizer Method
				Coacervate Method
		Food Applications of Procyanidins
			Applications of Procyanidins in Various Food Matrices
			Commercial Procyanidin-Rich Bioactive Extracts in Food Matrices
			Procyanidins as a Fortification Agent in Food Matrices
		Safety and Regulations of Procyanidins from Different Sources
			Safety and Regulations of Procyanidin Derivatives from Cranberry Extract
			Safety and Regulations of Procyanidin Derivatives from Grape Extract
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	14 Stilbenes and Its Derivatives and Glycosides
		Introduction
		Chemistry and Functionality of Stilbenes
		Biosynthetic Pathways and Metabolism of Stilbenes
		Chemical Stability, Encapsulation, and Incorporation of Stilbenes in Food Products
		Occurrence, Separation, Analysis, and Applications of Specific Stilbenes as Food Ingredients
			Stilbene Aglycones
			Stilbene Glycosides
		Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
	15 Lignans
		Introduction
		Lignan Structure
		Lignan Sources
		Metabolism in the Body
			Metabolism of Lignans by the Gut Microbiota
			Dietary Intake
		Biological Activity and Health-Promoting Attributes
			Effects of Lignans on Cancer
		Techniques for Extraction of Lignans
		Techniques for Measurement of Lignans
		Application of Lignans in Food Products
			Dairy Products
			Baked Products
			Meat Products
		Effect of Processing on Lignans
		Conclusion and Future Trends
		References
Part II: Carotenoids and Sterols
	16 Lycopene
		Introduction
		Sources of Lycopene
		Chemical Structure
		Absorption, Metabolism, and Bioavailability
		Mechanism of Action
			Antioxidant Activity
			Other Mechanisms of Action
				Anti-inflammatory Activity
		Lycopene and Chronic Diseases
			Cardiovascular Diseases
			Cancer
			Alzheimer´s Disease
			Lung Diseases and Osteoporosis
		Extracting Lycopene from Food Sources and Applications
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	17 Beta-Carotene
		Introduction
			β-Carotene Structure
			β-Carotene Properties
			Biological Role of Retinol (Vitamin A)
		Physicochemical Properties of β-Carotene
		Biosynthesis Pathways of β-Carotene
		Absorption and Metabolism Aspect of β-Carotene in the Human Body
		Antioxidant Activity of β-Carotene and Its Effect on Cardiovascular Diseases
		Anticancer Activity and Cell Proliferation and Apoptosis Regulation
		Anti-inflammatory Effect
		The Role of β-Carotene on Diabetes
		The Role of β-Carotene on Obesity
		β-Carotene and Skin Health
		Safety and Toxicity Aspects of β-Carotene
			Breast Cancer
			Prostate Cancer
			Colon Cancer
			Skin Cancer
				The Effect of β-Carotene on Melanoma Skin Cancer
			Lung Cancer
		Conclusion
		References
	18 Lutein
		Introduction
		Structure and Chemistry of Lutein
		Dietary Source and Bioavailability
			Dietary Source
			Bioavailability
		Biosynthesis
			Formation of Isopentenyl Diphosphate (IPP)
			Formation of Geranylgeranyl Pyrophosphate (GGPP)
			Biosynthesis and Desaturation of Phytoene
			Cyclization of Lycopene
			Hydroxylation
		Absorption and Tissue Distribution
		Biochemical Role
			Antioxidative Activity
			Prevention of Chronic Diseases
				Age-Related Macular Degeneration
				Retinitis Pigmentosa
				Cardiovascular Health
				Cancer Prevention
				Controlling Diabetes
		Isolation/Extraction
		Stability
			pH
			Temperature
			Light
			Oxidation
			Other Factors
		Application in the Food Industry
		Lutein Delivery System
			Liposomes
			Emulsion-Based Systems
			Solid Lipid Nanoparticles and Nanostructured Lipid Carriers
			Polymer-Based Nanoparticles
			Polymer/Lipid-Based Nanoparticles
		Conclusion
		References
	19 Zeaxanthin
		Introduction
		Physical and Chemical Properties of Zeaxanthin
			Chemical Structure and Their Stereoisomers
			Physicochemical Characteristics
		Sources of Zeaxanthin
		Extraction, Isolation, and Analysis of Zeaxanthin
		Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability of Zeaxanthin
		Human Health and Zeaxanthin
			Prevention of Age-Related Macular Degeneration
			Improvement of Cognitive Function
			Diabetes Treatment
			Chemoprevention of Cancer
			Hepatoprotection
			Enhancement of Embryonic and Fetal Development During Pregnancy
		Pigmentation in the Poultry and Aquaculture Industry
		Zeaxanthin in Food, Cosmetics, and Nutraceutical Business
		Safety and Recommended Dosage of Zeaxanthin
		Globe Market and Commercial Application of Zeaxanthin
		Conclusions and Perspectives
		References
	20 Astaxanthin
		Introduction
		Physical and Chemical Properties of Astaxanthin
			Chemical Structure and Isomerism
			Physicochemical Characteristics
		Sources of Astaxanthin
			Synthetic Astaxanthin
			Microalgae
			Yeasts
			Crustaceans
			Plants
		Extraction, Isolation, and Analysis of Astaxanthin
		Biological Activities of Astaxanthin and Human Health
			Antioxidant and Antiaging Activity
			Prevention of Cardiovascular Diseases
			Modulation of the Immunological Response
			Anticancer Activity
			Prevention of Complications of Diabetes Mellitus
			Astaxanthin Effect Against Neurodegenerative Disorders
			Antihypertensive Activity
			Improvement of Exercise Performance and Recovery
			Eye Health
			Treatment of Helicobacter pylori Infections
			Skin Protection
		Astaxanthin in the Aquaculture Industry
		Benefits of Astaxanthin in Livestock and Poultry
		Micro- and Nano-encapsulation of Astaxanthin
		Safety and Recommended Dosage of Astaxanthin
		Globe Market and Commercial Application and of Astaxanthin
		Conclusions and Future Perspectives
		References
	21 Fucoxanthin
		Introduction
		Source of Fucoxanthin
		Fucoxanthin Chemistry
		Stability of Fucoxanthin
			Temperature
			Light
			pH
			Oxidation
		Extraction Methods of Fucoxanthin
			Maceration Extraction (ME)
			Enzyme-Assisted Extraction (EAE)
			Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE)
			Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE)
			Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE)
		Biotechnological Explorations Related to Fucoxanthin Production
		Health Promotion Properties of Fucoxanthin
			Pharmacokinetics of Fucoxanthin
			Pharmacological Properties and Mechanism of Action of Fucoxanthin
				Anticancer Activity
				Anti-Obesity Activity
				Anti-Diabetic Activity
				Regulation of UCP1
				Anti-Inflammatory and Pain Regulation Activity
				Antioxidant Activity
				Hyperuricemia Regulation
				Anti-Dermatitis Activity
				Neuroprotection Activity
			Fucoxanthin-Drug Interactions
		Fucoxanthin as a Functional Food and Nutraceutical
		Advanced Fucoxanthin Formulations
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	22 Bixin
		Introduction
		Biosynthesis, Characteristic, Isolation, and Identification of Bixin
			Biosynthesis of Bixin
			Characteristics of Bixin
			Isolation and Identification of Bixin
		Bioavailability and Metabolism of Bixin
		Pharmacology and Molecular Mechanisms of Bixin
		Therapeutic Potential of Bixin
			Brain and Nervous System Diseases
			Cancer
			Cardiovascular Diseases
			Metabolic Syndrome and Liver Disease
			Renal Diseases
			Respiratory Diseases
			Immunity
			Other Therapeutic Effects
		Bixin and Clinical Finding
		Applications and Dietary Contribution of Bixin
		Conclusions and Future Directions
		References
	23 Crocins
		Introduction
		Structural and Physicochemical Characteristics
		Source of Crocins and Their Extraction
			Source
				Extraction and Analysis of Crocins
		Pharmacokinetics and Therapeutic Effects
			Tumoricidal Properties
				Anticancer Mechanisms of Crocin
					Apoptosis Induction
					Cell Cycle Arrest Induction
					Inhibition of Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMPs) Expression
				Thyroid Cancer (TC)
				Lung Cancer
				Gastric Cancer
				Pancreatic Cancer
				Breast Cancer
			Crocin´s Effect on the Central Nervous System
				Effect on Memory and Learning
				Effect of Crocin on Alzheimer´s Disease
				Effect on Cerebral Ischemia
			Crocin´s Effect on the Cardiovascular System
				Effect of Crocin on Atherosclerosis, Hyperlipidemia, and Hypertension
			Antioxidant Activities
		Crocin Bioavailability and Stability
		Crocetin and Crocin: A Side-by-Side Comparison
		Improving Crocin Stability Through Delivery Systems
		Crocin Toxicity
		Crocin Safety
		Crocin Biosynthesis Engineering and Progress
		Conclusion
		References
	24 Dietary Phytosterols
		Introduction
			Phytosterols: Sources, Classification, and Occurrence
			Phytosterols: Absorption and Metabolism
			Biosynthesis Approaches of Phytosterol
		Molecular Mechanism of Dietary Phytosterols: Focus on Various Biological Barriers
		Therapeutic Applications of Phytosterols
			Anticarcinogenic Effects
			Antidiabetic Effects
			Anti-inflammatory and Antioxidant Effects
			Anti-atherosclerotic Effects
			Antieryptotic and Antihemolytic Effects
			Microbiota Modulatory Activity
		Toxicological Aspects and Safety of Various Phytosterols
		Conclusion and Future Perspectives
		References
Part III: Bioactive Peptides
	25 Marine Bioactive Peptides
		Introduction
		Fish Bioactive Peptides
			Antioxidant Fish Peptides
			Antihypertensive Fish Peptides
			Antimicrobial Fish Peptides
			Anticancer Fish Peptides
			Bioavailability and Bioaccessibility of Fish Peptides
			Application of Fish Bioactive Peptides
		Macroalgae Bioactive Peptides
			Structure-Activity Relationship of Macroalgae Bioactive Peptides
			Bioavailability and Bioaccessibility of Seaweed Peptides
			Potential Applications of Seaweed Bioactive Peptides
		Mollusk´s Bioactive Peptides
			Structure-Activity Relationship of Mollusk´s Peptides
			Potential Application of Cephalopods Bioactive Peptides
		Crustaceans Bioactive Peptides
		Conclusion
		References
	26 Non-marine Animal Bioactive Peptides
		Introduction
		Meat
			Obtaining Meat Peptides
			Bioactivity of Meat Peptides
				Antihypertensive Activity
				Antioxidant Activity
				Other Bioactivities
			Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability of Meat Peptides
		Milk
			Obtaining Milk Peptides
			Bioactivity of Milk/Dairy Peptides
				Antihypertensive Activity
				Antioxidant Activity
				Antidiabetic
				Gut Health Improvement
				Other Bioactivities
			Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability of Milk Peptides
		Egg
			Obtaining Egg Peptides
			Bioactivity of Egg Peptides
				Antihypertensive Activity
				Antioxidant Activity
				Antimicrobial Activity
				Other Bioactivities
		Application of Bioactive Peptides
		Conclusion
		References
	27 Plant Bioactive Peptides
		Introduction
		Cereals and Pseudo-cereals
			Rice
			Wheat
			Amaranth
			Quinoa
		Legumes or Pulses
			Beans
			Peas
			Chickpea
			Cowpea
			Lentils
		Oilseeds
			Soybean
			Rapeseed, Colza, or Canola
			Sunflower
			Peanut
		Fruits and Vegetables
			Broccoli and Cauliflower
			Potato
			Tomato
			Sweet Potato
		Conclusion
		References
	28 Microbial Bioactive Peptides
		Introduction
		Microbial Bioactive Peptides
			Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB)-Derived Bioactive Peptides
				LAB Proteolytic System
				Extraction and Purification of Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB)-Derived Bioactive Peptides
				Production of Bioactive Peptides with Co-cultures of Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) and Yeast
			Yeast-Derived Bioactive Peptides
				Bioactive Peptides from Yeast Extract
				Bioactive Peptides from Yeast-Fermented Products
				Peptides Released by Yeast
			Filamentous Fungi-Derived Bioactive Peptides
				Production of Proteases and Generation of Bioactive Peptides in SSF by Filamentous Fungi
				Production of Fermented Soybean Products by SSF with Filamentous Fungi
		Conclusions
		References
Part IV: Essential Fatty Acids and Minerals
	29 Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
		Introduction
		Sources of ω-3 PUFAs
			Overview on Conventional Sources
			Microalgae as a Promising Source
			Microbial Sources of ω-3 PUFAs
		Structural Features and Properties of ω-3 PUFAs
		Methods for Extracting Marine Oils
			Traditional Solvent Extraction Methods
			Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE)
			Oil Extraction by Enzymatic Methods
		ω-3 PUFAs Concentration from Fish Oil
			Supercritical Fluid Fractionation (SFF)
			Enzymatic Methods in ω-3 PUFAs Concentration
			Low-Temperature Crystallization Enrichment
			Molecular Distillation
			Urea Complexation Process
		Health Effects of ω-3 PUFAs and Their Mechanisms of Action
		Futures Prospectives
		Cross-References
		References
	30 Plant Oils Rich in Essential Fatty Acids
		Introduction
		Importance and Therapeutic Roles of Plant-Based Essential Fatty Acids (Omega-3 and Omega-6)
		Sources of Plant-Based Essential Fatty Acids
		Preservation of Oils Rich in Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
		Metabolic Fates of Essential Fatty Acids (Omega-3 and Omega-6)
		Some Physicochemical Aspects of Plant-Based Oils
		Digestion of Fatty Acids
		Application of Plant-Based Oils in Human and Animal
		Conclusions
		References
	31 Trace Minerals
		Introduction
		Iron
			Chemistry and Structure
			Absorption and Metabolism
			Function
			Requirement and Sources
			Deficiency, Toxicity, and Safety
			Applications in Functional Foods
		Zinc
			Chemistry and Structure
			Absorption and Metabolism
			Function
			Requirement and Sources
			Deficiency, Toxicity, and Safety
			Applications in Functional Foods
		Copper
			Chemistry and Structure
			Absorption and Metabolism
			Function
			Requirement and Sources
			Deficiency, Toxicity, and Safety
			Applications in Functional Foods
		Selenium
			Chemistry and Structure
			Absorption and Metabolism
			Function
			Requirement and Sources
			Deficiency, Toxicity, and Safety
			Applications in Functional Foods
		Iodine
			Chemistry and Structure
			Absorption and Metabolism
			Function
			Requirement and Sources
			Deficiency, Toxicity, and Safety
			Applications in Functional Foods
		Manganese
			Chemistry and Structure
			Absorption and Metabolism
			Function
			Requirement and Sources
			Deficiency, Toxicity, and Safety
			Applications in Functional Foods
		Chromium
			Chemistry and Structure
			Absorption and Metabolism
			Function
			Requirement and Sources
			Deficiency, Toxicity, and Safety
			Applications in Functional Foods
		Florid
			Chemistry and Structure
			Absorption and Metabolism
			Function
			Requirement and Sources
			Deficiency, Toxicity, and Safety
			Applications in Functional Foods
		Molybdenum
			Chemistry and Structure
			Absorption and Metabolism
			Function
			Requirement and Sources
			Deficiency, Toxicity, and Safety
			Applications in Functional Foods
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
Part V: Vitamins
	32 Vitamin A
		Introduction
		Structure
		Mechanisms of Action
			Visual Cycle
			Genome Expression
			Other Functions
		Vitamin A Deficiency (VAD)
		Health-Promoting Properties of Vitamin A
			Possible Indications
			Role of Vitamin A in COVID-19 as an Immunity Booster
			Recommended Dosage in Diet or Supplements
		Safety and Toxicity of Vitamin A
		Sources of Vitamin A
		Stability of Vitamin A
		Delivery Systems for Increasing Efficacy and Stability of Vitamin A
			Vitamin A Encapsulation
				Spray Drying
				Spray Cooling
				Coacervation
				Emulsification
				Liposomes
				Solid-Lipid Nanoparticles
				Inclusion Complexes
				Electrospinning
		The Pharmacokinetics of Vitamin A
			Absorption
			Distribution
			Metabolism and Elimination
		Conclusion
		References
	33 Vitamin D
		Introduction
		Discovery of Vitamin D and Its Nomenclature
			Discovery
			Nomenclature
			Chemistry of Vitamin D
		Natural Sources of Vitamin D
			Foods
			Sunlight
		Physicochemical Properties and Metabolism
			Physiochemical Properties
			Metabolism
		Functions
			Vitamin D and Bone Health
			Vitamin D and Diabetes Mellitus
			Vitamin D and Immune Function
			Vitamin D and Obesity
			Vitamin D and Cognitive Function
			Vitamin D and Cardiovascular Diseases
				Hypertension
				Atherosclerosis
			Vitamin D and Cancer Prevention
				Colon Cancer
				Breast Cancer
				Prostate Cancer
			Vitamin D and COVID-19
		Nutritional Benefits and Deficiencies
			Vitamin D for Bone Strength
			Vitamin D Helps to Strengthen Muscles
			Vitamin D Supports the Immune System
			Vitamin D Helps to Strengthen Oral Health
			Vitamin D Helps to Treat Hypertension
			Vitamin D Helps to Reduce Weight
			Recent Research on the Association Between Vitamin D and Obesity Among Young Women
			Vitamin D Deficiency
				People at Risk for Vitamin D Deficiency
		Stability Under Various Conditions and Effect of Processing on Stability
			Effects of Stability During Processing
		Encapsulation and Oral Delivery
			Encapsulation
			Microencapsulation
			Coating Materials for Vitamin D Microencapsulation
			Nanoencapsulation
			Coating Materials for Vitamin D Nanoencapsulation
			Oral Delivery of Encapsulated Vitamin D
		Incorporation into Food Products
		Safety and Regulations
			Intake
			Toxicity
			Safety Intake
			Safe Sunlight Exposure
		Future Trends
		Conclusion
		References
	34 Vitamin E
		Introduction
		Chemistry and Structure
		Natural Sources
		Physicochemical Properties of Vitamin E
		Metabolism of Vitamin E
		Functions of Vitamin E
			Antioxidant Activity
			Cellular Signaling
			Preventing Platelet Coagulation
			Prevention of Diseases
		Encapsulation and Oral Delivery
			General Aspects of Microencapsulation
			Vitamin E Microencapsulation
			Classification of Encapsulation Methods Applied for Vitamin E
				Emulsion-Based Delivery Systems
				Lipid Nanoparticle (NP) Delivery Systems
				Filled Hydrogel Particles
				Biopolymer (Micro- and Nanoparticle) Delivery Systems
		Functional Foods Containing Encapsulated Vitamin E
		Conclusion and Future Aspects
		Cross-References
		References
	35 Vitamin K
		Introduction
		Chemistry and Structure
			Phylloquinone
			Menaquinones
			Menadione
		Natural Sources
		Physicochemical Properties and Metabolism
			Physicochemical Properties
			Metabolism
				Absorption, Transport, and Distribution of Vitamin K
				Vitamin K Cycle
				Vitamin K Storage
				Metabolic Degradation and Excretion of Vitamin K
		Functionality
			Coagulation Cascade and Circulating Anticoagulants
			Matrix Gla Protein (MGP)
		Nutritional Benefits
			Production of Coagulation Protein
			Bone Strength
			Cognition Level
			Cardiovascular and Circulatory Systems
			Novel Corona Disease (COVID-19)
			Glycemic Index and Antitumor Effects
		Vitamin K Deficiencies
		Stability Under Various Conditions and Effect of Processing on Stability
		Encapsulation and Oral Delivery
		Incorporation of Vitamin K into Food Products
		Safety and Regulation
		Conclusion and Future Trends
		Cross-References
		References
	36 Vitamin C
		Introduction
		Chemistry and Structure
			Chemistry: Synthesis in Animals - In Vivo
			Chemistry: Synthesis - In Vitro
		Sources
		Nutritional and Biochemical Importance
		Cellular Regulation of Ascorbic Acid
		Biological Activity and Health-Promoting Attributes
			Antioxidant Activity
			Anticancer Activity
			Vitamin C and the Common Cold
			Cardiovascular Disease
			Scurvy: Discovery of Vitamin C
		Vitamin C Encapsulation
			Lipid-Based Carriers
			Polysaccharide-Based Carriers
			Protein-Based Carriers
		Toxicity and Safety
		Conclusion and Future Aspects
		Cross-References
		References
	37 B Vitamins
		Introduction
		The Various of B Vitamins
		Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)
			Absorption and Metabolism
			Food Sources
			Function
			Deficiency
			Toxicity
		Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
			Absorption and Metabolism
			Food Sources
			Function
			Deficiency
			Toxicity
		Vitamin B3 (Niacin)
			Absorption and Metabolism
			Food Sources
			Function
			Deficiency
			Toxicity
			Interactions with Other Nutrients
		Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)
			Absorption and Metabolism
			Food Sources
			Function
			Deficiency
			Toxicity
		Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
			Absorption and Metabolism
			Food Sources
			Function
			Deficiency
			Toxicity
		Vitamin B7 (Biotin)
			Absorption and Metabolism
			Food Sources
			Function
			Deficiency
			Toxicity
		Vitamin B9 (Folic Acid)
			Absorption and Metabolism
			Food Sources
			Function
			Interactions with Other Nutrients
			Deficiency
			Toxicity
		Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)
			Absorption and Metabolism
			Food Sources
			Function
			Deficiency
			Toxicity
		Conclusion
		References
Part VI: Prebiotics and Dietary Fibers
	38 Xylooligosaccharides (XOS)
		Introduction
		Chemical Structure of XOS and Xylan
		Obtention of XOS
			Processing of Lignocellulosic Biomass
				Chemical Treatment
				Hydrothermal Treatment (Autohydrolysis)
				Enzymatic Treatment
				Xylan Active Enzymes
				Enzyme Immobilization
			Purification of XOS
		Emerging Sources to Obtain XOS
		Biological Functions of XOS
			Prebiotic Effect
			Digestive Health and Microbiota
				XOS
				AXOS
			Regulation of Lipids and Blood Glucose
			Immunomodulation
			Anticancerous Activity
			Antioxidant Activity
			Animal Feed
			Benefits in Plants
		Food Applications
		Other Applications
		Conclusion
		References
	39 Fructooligosaccharides (FOS)
		Introduction
		Types of FOS
		Industrial Production of FOS
			Extraction from Plants
				Inulin-Type FOS Extraction
				Extraction of FOS from Agave
			Enzymatic Synthesis
		Microbial Production of FOS
		Emerging Sources to Obtain FOS
		Benefits
			Prebiotic Activity
			Gastrointestinal Health
			Immunomodulation
			Anticarcinogenic
			Mineral Uptake
			Control of Weight and Weight Disorders
			Diabetes Control
			Conclusions on the Benefits of Consuming FOS
		Technological Properties of FOS
			Solubility and Water Retention
			Stability Toward pH and Temperature
			Thickening
			Viscosity
			Others
		Applications/Uses
			Food Additive
			Nutraceutical Supplements
			Chemical and Pharmaceutical Industry Uses
		Are FOS Safe to Consume
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	40 Inulin Fiber
		Introduction
		Inulin Overview
			Sources
			Obtention
				Inulin Extraction
				Inulin Synthesis
			Classification of Inulin
			Chemical Structure
		Health Effects
			Positive Effects
			Diseases Prevention
			Recommended Inulin Intakes
		Food Applications
			Application of Inulin in Baked Goods and Pasta
			Inulin in Gels
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	41 Galacto-oligosaccharides
		Introduction
		Galacto-oligosaccharides as Food Ingredients
			Prebiotics and Functional Ingredients
			Functional Properties of Galacto-oligosaccharides
			Physicochemical Properties of Galacto-oligosaccharides and Their Technological Applications
		Galacto-oligosaccharide Manufacturing
			β-Galactosidases: Catalysts for the Synthesis of Galacto-oligosaccharides
			Synthesis of Galacto-oligosaccharides
			Large-Scale Galacto-oligosaccharide Manufacturing
		Fructosyl-galacto-oligosaccharides
		Analytical Determination of Galacto-oligosaccharides
		Concluding Remarks
		Cross-References
		References
	42 Resistant Starch
		Introduction
		Healthy Effects of Resistant Starches
		Resistant Starch in Farinaceous Foods
			Resistant Starches for Bread Enrichment: Influence on Dough and Final Product Characteristics
			Retrogradation: A Way to Achieve Starch Resistance to Digestion
			Resistant Starches in Other Related Products
		Resistant Starches in Dairy Foods
		Conclusions
		References
	43 Human Milk Oligosaccharides (HMOS)
		Introduction
		HMOS Composition
		HMOS Biosynthesis
		Preparation
			Chemical Synthesis
			Enzymatic Synthesis
				Glycosyltransferases
				Glycosidases
			Chemoenzymatic Synthesis
			Fermentation
		Biological Functions of FUCOS and Nonfucosylated Neutral HMOS
			Prebiotic Effects
			Antiadhesive
			Immune System Regulation
			Brain Development
			Growth Related
		Biological Functions of SIAMOS
			Health
			Brain Development
			Growth Related
		Commercial Applications
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	44 Lactulose
		Introduction
		Properties and Application of Lactulose
		Chemical Synthesis of Lactulose
		Electro-activation Isomerization of Lactulose
		Enzymatic Synthesis of Lactulose by Transgalactosylation
		Enzymatic Synthesis of Lactulose by Lactose Isomerization
		Concluding Remarks
		Cross-References
		References
	45 Pectin Oligosaccharides (POS)
		Introduction
		Nature and Chemical Structure of POS
		Sources of Pectin
		Production of POS
			Enzymatic Processes
			Chemical Methods
			Physical Processes
		Characterization of Released POS
		Prebiotic Compounds and Its Health Benefits
		POS as Prebiotics
		POS as Functional Ingredients
			Antioxidant Activity of POS
			Uses of POS in Food Industry
			Uses of POS in the Pharmacological Industry
		Conclusion
		References
Part VII: Bioactive Live Organisms
	46 Probiotic Lactic Acid Bacteria
		Introduction
		Taxonomy of Probiotic LAB
			Genetic Characteristics
			Physiological and Biochemical Characteristics
		Ability of Probiotic LAB to Survive in Adverse Environmental Conditions of Products and GI Conditions
		Ability of Probiotic LAB to Attach to Epithelial Cells
		Health-Promoting Effects of Probiotic LAB
			Antioxidant Effects
				Exopolysaccharides (EPS)
				Carotenoids
				Ferulic Acid
				Histamine
			Antimicrobial Effects
			Immunomodulatory Effects
			Anticancer Effects
			Therapeutic Effects on GI Disorders
		Probiotic LAB from Traditional Products
		Production of Probiotic LAB Products: Industrial Aspects
			Dairy Probiotic Products
			Nondairy Probiotic Products
		Safety of Probiotic LAB
			Non-pathogenicity
			Absence of Virulome
			Absence of Antibiotic Resistance
		Conclusions
		References
	47 Non-LAB Bacterial Probiotics
		Introduction
		Bacillus Spp.
		Clostridium
		Escherichia coli Nissle 1917
		Propionibacterium Spp.
		Akkermansia muciniphila
		Faecalibacterium prausnitzii
		Bacteroides Spp.
		Conclusion
		Nature Does Not Do Monoculture!
		References
	48 Probiotic Yeasts
		Introduction
		Application of Probiotic Yeasts in Food Processing
			Dairy Products
			Olives and Fermented Olives
			Fermented Cereals
			Miscellaneous Fermented Foods
		Bioactive Metabolites of Probiotic Yeasts
			Folate, GABA, and CLA
			Prebiotic Oligosaccharides and EPS
			Antioxidants
			Volatile Compounds
			Enzymes
		Conclusion
		References
Index