Handbook of Fillers

1 INTRODUCTION 

1.1 Expectations from fillers
1.2 Typical filler properties
1.3 Definitions
1.4 Classification
1.5 Markets and trends
References


2 SOURCES OF FILLERS, THEIR CHEMICAL COMPOSITION, PROPERTIES, AND MORPHOLOGY 

2.1 Particulate Fillers 
2.1.1 Aluminum flakes and powders
2.1.2 Aluminum borate whiskers
2.1.3 Aluminum oxide 
2.1.4 Aluminum trihydroxide
2.1.5 Anthracite
2.1.6 Antimonate of sodium
2.1.7 Antimony pentoxide
2.1.8 Antimony trioxide
2.1.9 Ammonium octamolybdate
2.1.10 Apatite
2.1.11 Ash, fly
2.1.12 Attapulgite
2.1.13 Barium metaborate
2.1.14 Barium sulfate
2.1.15 Barium & strontium sulfates
2.1.16 Barium titanate
2.1.17 Bentonite
2.1.18 Beryllium oxide
2.1.19 Boron nitride
2.1.20 Calcium carbonate
2.1.21 Calcium hydroxide
2.1.22 Calcium sulfate
2.1.23 Carbon black 
2.1.24 Ceramic beads
2.1.25 Clay
2.1.26 Copper
2.1.27 Cobalt powder
2.1.28 Cristobalite
2.1.29 Diatomaceous earth
2.1.30 Dolomite
2.1.31 Ferrites
2.1.32 Feldspar
2.1.33 Glass beads
2.1.34 Gold
2.1.35 Graphite
2.1.36 Hydrous calcium silicate
2.1.37 Iron oxide 
2.1.38 Kaolin 
2.1.39 Lithopone 
2.1.40 Magnesium oxide 
2.1.41 Magnesium hydroxide 
2.1.42 Metal-containing conductive materials
2.1.43 Mica
2.1.44 Molybdenum
2.1.45 Molybdenum disulfide
2.1.46 Molybdic oxide
2.1.47 Nanofillers
2.1.48 Nickel
2.1.49 Nickel oxide
2.1.50 Nickel zinc ferrite
2.1.51 Perlite
2.1.52 Polymeric fillers
2.1.53 Potassium hexatitanate whiskers
2.1.54 Pumice
2.1.55 Pyrophyllite
2.1.56 Rubber particles
2.1.57 Sepiolite
2.1.58 Silica 
2.1.58.1 Fumed silica
2.1.58.2 Fused silica 
2.1.58.3 Precipitated silica
2.1.58.4 Nanosilica
2.1.58.5 Quartz (Tripoli) 
2.1.58.6 Sand 
2.1.58.7 Silica gel
2.1.59 Silicon carbide
2.1.60 Silicon nitride
2.1.61 Silver powder and flakes
2.1.62 Slate flour 
2.1.63 Talc 
2.1.64 Titanium dioxide
2.1.65 Tungsten 
2.1.66 Vermiculite 
2.1.67 Wollastonite 
2.1.68 Wood flour and similar materials
2.1.69 Zeolites 
2.1.70 Zinc borate 
2.1.71 Zinc oxide 
2.1.72 Zinc stannate 
2.1.73 Zinc sulfide 
2.2 Fibers 
2.2.1 Aramid fibers
2.2.2 Carbon fibers 
2.2.3 Cellulose fibers 
2.2.4 Glass fibers 
2.2.5 Other fibers 
References 


3 FILLERS TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE, AND PROCESSING 

3.1 Filler packaging
3.2 External transportation
3.3 Filler receiving 
3.4 Storage 
3.5 In-plant conveying 
3.6 Semi-bulk unloading systems
3.7 Bag handling equipment 
3.8 Blending 
3.9 Feeding 
3.10 Drying 
3.11 Dispersion 
References


4 QUALITY CONTROL OF FILLERS 

4.1 Absorption coefficient
4.2 Acidity or alkalinity of water extract
4.3 Ash content 
4.4 Brightness 
4.5 Coarse particles
4.6 Color 
4.7 CTAB surface area
4.8 Density 
4.9 Electrical properties
4.10 Extractables 
4.11 Fines content 
4.12 Heating loss 
4.13 Heat stability 
4.14 Hegman fineness 
4.15 Hiding power 
4.16 Iodine absorption number 
4.17 Lightening power of white pigments
4.18 Loss on ignition 
4.19 Mechanical and related properties
4.20 Oil absorption 
4.21 Particle size 
4.22 Pellet strength 
4.23 pH 
4.24 Resistance to light
4.25 Resistivity of aqueous extract 
4.26 Sieve residue
4.27 Soluble matter 
4.28 Specific surface area
4.29 Sulfur content 
4.30 Tamped volume 
4.31 Tinting strength 
4.32 Volatile matter 
4.33 Water content 
4.34 Water-soluble sulfates, chlorides and nitrates
References 


5 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FILLERS AND FILLED MATERIALS 

5.1 Density
5.2 Particle size
5.3 Particle size distribution
5.4 Particle shape 
5.5 Particle surface morphology and roughness
5.6 Specific surface area 
5.7 Porosity 
5.8 Particle-particle interaction and spacing
5.9 Agglomerates 
5.10 Aggregates and structure
5.11 Flocculation and sedimentation
5.12 Aspect ratio 
5.13 Packing volume 
5.14 pH
5.15 Zeta-potential
5.16 Surface energy
5.17 Moisture 
5.18 Absorption of liquids and swelling
5.19 Permeability and barrier properties 
5.20 Oil absorption 
5.21 Hydrophilic/hydrophobic properties
5.22 Optical properties 
5.23 Refractive index 
5.24 Friction properties 
5.25 Hardness 
5.26 Intumescent properties
5.27 Thermal conductivity 
5.28 Thermal expansion coefficient
5.29 Melting temperature 
5.30 Electrical properties 
5.31 Magnetic properties 
References 


6 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF FILLERS AND FILLED MATERIALS 

6.1 Reactivity
6.2 Chemical groups on the filler surface
6.3 Filler surface modification 
6.4 Filler modification and material properties
6.5 Resistance to various chemicals 
6.6 Cure in fillers presence 
6.7 Polymerization in fillers presence
6.8 Grafting 
6.9 Crosslink density 
6.10 Reaction kinetics 
6.11 Molecular mobility 
References 


7 ORGANIZATION OF INTERFACE AND MATRIX CONTAINING FILLERS 

7.1 Particle distribution in matrix
7.2 Orientation of filler particles in a matrix
7.3 Voids 
7.4 Matrix-filler interaction
7.5 Chemical interactions 
7.6 Other interactions 
7.7 Interphase organization
7.8 Interfacial adhesion 
7.9 Interphase thickness 
7.10 Filler-chain links 
7.11 Chain dynamics 
7.12 Bound rubber 
7.13 Debonding 
7.14 Mechanisms of reinforcement 
7.15 Benefits of organization on molecular level
References 


8 THE EFFECT OF FILLERS ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FILLED MATERIALS 

8.1 Tensile strength and elongation
8.2 Tensile yield stress 
8.3 Elastic modulus 
8.4 Flexural strength and modulus 
8.5 Impact resistance 
8.6 Hardness 
8.7 Tear strength
8.8 Compressive strength
8.9 Fracture resistance 
8.10 Wear 
8.11 Friction 
8.12 Abrasion 
8.13 Scratch resistance
8.14 Fatigue 
8.15 Failure 
8.16 Adhesion 
8.17 Thermal deformation
8.18 Shrinkage 
8.19 Warpage 
8.20 Compression set
8.21 Load transfer 
8.22 Residual stress 
8.23 Creep 
References 


9 THE EFFECT OF FILLERS ON RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF FILLED MATERIALS 

9.1 Viscosity
9.2 Flow 
9.3 Flow induced filler particle orientation
9.4 Torque 
9.5 Viscoelasticity
9.6 Dynamic mechanical behavior
9.7 Complex viscosity 
9.8 Shear viscosity 
9.9 Elongational viscosity
9.10 Melt rheology 
9.11 Yield value 
References 


10 MORPHOLOGY OF FILLED SYSTEMS 

10.1 Crystallinity
10.2 Crystallization behavior
10.3 Nucleation 
10.4 Crystal size 
10.5 Spherulites 
10.6 Transcrystallinity
10.7 Orientation 
References 


11 EFFECT OF FILLERS ON EPOSURE TO DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS 

11.1 Irradiation
11.2 UV radiation 
11.3 Temperature 
11.4 Liquids and vapors
11.5 Stabilization 
11.6 Degradable materials
References 


12 FLAMMABILITY OF FILLED MATERIALS 

12.1 Definitions
12.2 Limiting oxygen index
12.3 Ignition and flame spread rate
12.4 Heat transmission rate 
12.5 Decomposition and combustion
12.6 Emission of gaseous components
12.7 Smoke 
12.8 Char 
12.9 Recycling
References 


13 INFLUENCE OF FILLERS ON PERFORMANCE OF OTHER ADDITIVES AND VICE VERSA 

13.1 Adhesion promoters
13.2 Antistatics 
13.3 Blowing agents 
13.4 Catalysts 
13.5 Compatibilizers
13.6 Coupling agents 
13.7 Dispersing agents and surface active agents
13.8 Flame retardants 
13.9 Impact modifiers 
13.10 UV stabilizers 
13.11 Other additives 
References 


14 TESTING METHODS IN FILLED SYSTEMS 

14.1 Physical methods
14.1.1 Atomic force microscopy 
14.1.2 Autoignition test 
14.1.3 Bound rubber 
14.1.4 Char formation 
14.1.5 Cone calorimetry 
14.1.6 Contact angle 
14.1.7 Dispersing agent requirement
14.1.8 Dispersion tests 
14.1.9 Dripping test 
14.1.10 Dynamic mechanical analysis
14.1.11 Electric constants determination
14.1.12 Electron microscopy 
14.1.13 Fiber orientation 
14.1.14 Flame propagation test
14.1.15 Glow wire test 
14.1.16 Image analysis 
14.1.17 Limiting oxygen index
14.1.18 Magnetic properties 
14.1.19 Optical microscopy 
14.1.20 Particle size analysis 
14.1.21 Radiant panel test 
14.1.22 Rate of combustion 
14.1.23 Scanning acoustic microscopy
14.1.24 Smoke chamber 
14.1.25 Sonic methods 
14.1.26 Specific surface area
14.1.27 Thermal analysis 
14.2 Chemical and instrumental analysis
14.2.1 Electron spin resonance 
14.2.2 Electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis
14.2.3 Inverse gas chromatography 
14.2.4 Gas chromatography 
14.2.5 Gel content 
14.2.6 Infrared and Raman spectroscopy
14.2.7 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
14.2.8 UV and visible spectophotometry 
14.2.9 X-ray analysis 
References 


15 FILLERS IN COMMERCIAL POLYMERS 

15.1 Acrylics
15.2 Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymer
15.3 Acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylate 
15.4 Aliphatic polyketone 
15.5 Alkyd resins 
15.6 Elastomers 
15.7 Epoxy resins 
15.8 Ethylene vinyl acetate copolymers 
15.9 Ethylene-ethyl acetate copolymer 
15.10 Ethylene-propylene copolymers 
15.11 Ionomers 
15.12 Liquid crystalline polymers
15.13 Perfluoroalkoxy resin 
15.14 Phenolic resins 
15.15 Poly(acrylic acid) 
15.16 Polyamides 
15.17 Polyamideimide 
15.18 Polyamines 
15.19 Polyaniline 
15.20 Polyaryletherketone
15.21 Poly(butylene terephthalate) 
15.22 Polycarbonate 
15.23 Polyetheretherketone
15.24 Polyetherimide 
15.25 Polyether sulfone 
15.26 Polyethylene 
15.27 Polyethylene, chlorinated 
15.28 Polyethylene, chlorosulfonated 
15.29 Poly(ethylene oxide) 
15.30 Poly(ethylene terephthalate)
15.31 Polyimide 
15.32 Polymethylmethacrylate
15.33 Polyoxymethylene 
15.34 Poly(phenylene ether)
15.35 Poly(phenylene sulfide) 
15.36 Polypropylene 
15.37 Polypyrrole 
15.38 Polystyrene & high impact 
15.39 Polysulfides 
15.40 Polysulfone 
15.41 Polytetrafluoroethylene
15.42 Polyurethanes 
15.43 Poly(vinyl acetate)
15.44 Poly(vinyl alcohol)
15.45 Poly(vinyl butyral) 
15.46 Poly(vinyl chloride) 
15.47 Rubbers 
15.47.1 Natural rubber
15.47.2 Nitrile rubber 
15.47.3 Polybutadiene rubber 
15.47.4 Polybutyl rubber 
15.47.5 Polychloroprene 
15.47.6 Polyisobutylene 
15.47.7 Polyisoprene 
15.47.8 Styrene-butadiene rubber
15.48 Silicones 
15.49 Styrene-acrylonitrile copolymer
15.50 Tetrafluoroethylene-perfluoropropylene
15.51 Unsaturated polyesters 
15.52 Vinylidene-fluoride terpolymers 
References 


16 FILLER IN MATERIALS COMBINATIONS 

16.1 Blends, alloys and interpenetrating networks
16.2 Composites 
16.3 Nanocomposites 
16.4 Laminates 
References 

17 FORMULATION WITH FILLERS 
References 

18 FILLERS IN DIFFERENT PROCESSING METHODS 
18.1 Blow molding
18.2 Calendering and hot-melt coating
18.3 Compression molding 
18.4 Dip coating 
18.5 Dispersion 
18.6 Extrusion 
18.7 Foaming 
18.8 Injection molding
18.9 Knife coating 
18.10 Mixing 
18.11 Pultrusion 
18.12 Reaction injection molding
18.13 Rotational molding 
18.14 Sheet molding 
18.15 Thermoforming 
18.16 Welding and machining 
References 


19 FILLERS IN DIFFERENT PRODUCTS 

19.1 Adhesives 
19.2 Agriculture 
19.3 Aerospace
19.4 Appliances 
19.5 Automotive materials 
19.6 Bottles and containers 
19.7 Building components 
19.8 Business machines 
19.9 Cable and wire 
19.10 Coated fabrics 
19.11 Coatings and paints
19.12 Cosmetics and pharmaceutical products
19.13 Dental restorative composites 
19.14 Electrical and electronic materials 
19.15 Electromagnetic interference shielding 
19.16 Fibers 
19.17 Film 
19.18 Foam 
19.19 Food and feed
19.20 Friction materials
19.21 Geosynthetics 
19.22 Hoses and pipes 
19.23 Magnetic devices 
19.24 Medical applications 
19.25 Membranes 
19.26 Noise damping 
19.27 Optical devices 
19.28 Paper 
19.29 Radiation shields
19.30 Railway transportation 
19.31 Roofing 
19.32 Telecommunication
19.33 Tires 
19.34 Sealants 
19.35 Siding 
19.36 Sports equipment 
19.37 Waterproofing 
19.38 Windows 
References 


20 HAZARDS IN FILLER USE 
References