Handbook of Education Systems in South Asia

Preface
Contents
About the Editors-in-Chief
About the Section Editors
Contributors
1 Education Systems in South Asia
	Introduction
	Defining the Region
		Society and Culture
		Demography and Development
	Education in South Asia
	An Overview of the Handbook
	Conclusion: Challenges and Ways Ahead
	Cross-References
	References
Section I: Indigenous Education Traditions
	2 Indigenous Education Practices
		Conclusion
	3 Philosophical Education in Traditional and Buddhist Schools of Thought in South Asia
		Introduction
		Part 1: The Tradition of Education: An Overview from Textual Sources
			The Teaching, the Taught, and the Teacher
			The Giving and Taking of Fees
			Learning of the Here and Learning of the Beyond
			Informal Methods of Philosophical Education:
			Philosophy for the Public
		Part 2: Traditional Buddhist Education
			Traditional Buddhist Education: Buddha as a Teacher
			The Lone Wandering Monk and the Sangha: Teachers After the Buddha
			Stories and Pedagogy
		Conclusion
		References
	4 Jain Education in South Asia
		Part I: Early Voices of Jain Education
			Studying as a Form of Asceticism
			Appropriate Study Places According to the Ācārāga Sutra
			A Monastic Day According to the Uttarādhyayana Sutra
			Student-Teacher Etiquette
		Part II: Contemporary Jain Education
			The Role of the Family in the Education of a Young Jain
				Family and Food
				Family and Temple Worship
			Jain Schools
				Higher Education
				Pathshalas
		Part III: Jain Curricula
			Liturgies
			Theology, Cosmology, and Ontology
		Conclusion
		Endnotes
		Cross-References
		References
	5 Roadmap for Ayurveda Education in Modern India
		Introduction
			Lessons from the History and Evolution of Ayurveda Education
			The Core Features, Pedagogy, Epistemology, and Ontology Underlying Ayurveda Knowledge System and Its Transmission
			Postcolonial Profile of Ayurveda Education in India
			Modernizing Ayurveda Education in the Twenty-First Century
	6 Practices of Music Education in Gurukul and Related Systems
		Introduction
		Sound
		Guru-Shishya Parampara
		Memory
		Components of Training
			Listening
			Voice Training
			Melodic Fundamentals
			Rāga
			Treatment of Time
			Compositions
			Improvisation
			Performance
			Evaluation
		The Contemporary Gurukul: Features and Challenges
		Conclusion
		References
	7 Contemporary Movement Arts Practices and Traditional Somatic Education
		Introduction
		Education in Indian Physical and Performance Traditions
			Multi-perceptual Imagination and Predetermined Aesthetics
			Categorization and Classification
		Kalarippayattu (Martial Art)
			Structure of the Education
			Body and Training Arena
			Genealogy and Characteristics of Kalarippayattu
			Categories of Kalarippayattu Training
			Ashta Vativukal (8 essentialized animal postures)
			Body Preparation Exercises and Oil Massage
				Oil Massage
				Meyppayattu Series (Sequences to Prepare the Body)
				Kolthaari
				Angathaari
				Verumkai (Bare-Hand Technique)
				Kalari Chikitsa
				Kalarippayattu Influencing Dance
		Bharatanatyam (Classical Dance)
			Brief Historical Background
			Education in Bharatanatyam
			Categorization and the Structure of Bharatanatyam
			Physical Training
			Abhinaya (Enactment)
			Music
				Ouchitya (Appropriateness)
		Kootiyattam and Kathakali (Dance Theater Traditions)
			Brief Background
			Education and Training
		Education at Attakkalari to Become a Contemporary Dance Artist
			Context
			Body Preparation for Contemporary Dance/Movement Arts
			Specificities of Pedagogy for Contemporary Dance at Attakkalari
			Somatic Training from Traditional Forms for Contemporary Practices
			Reception of Dance and Movement Arts
	8 Reflections on Theatre Education
		Introduction
		Introducing the Theatre Institutions
			Theatre Pedagogy in Ninasam
			Learning Navarasasadhana at Natanakairali
			``Source of Performance Energy´´ Workshop at Adishakti
		Breath, Emotions, and Performative Memories
		Teaching Methodology for Contemporary Acting
			Working with Imagination
			A New Body Vocabulary
			Engaging with Theory
			Back to Indigenous Knowledge Systems
		Conclusion
		References
	9 Becoming a Kattaikkuttu Performer
		Introduction
		Traditional Training Trajectory
			How Oral is Kattaikkuttu?
			Flexibility and Kattaikkuttu´s Oral Reservoir
			Contexts for Transmission and Training
			Practice-Based Knowledge
			Career Stages
		Training at the Kattaikkuttu Gurukulam
		Conclusion
		End notes
		References
	10 Indigenous Learning in Tribal Communities
		Indigenous Knowledge and Tribal Ontologies
		The Santal Web of Knowledge and Identity and Literacy: bidia and ol chiki
		Children´s Culture
		Ancestral Knowledge
		Everyday Activities, Observation, and Intuition
		Mother Tongue and Identity
		Transition and Change
		Culture of Learning and the Curriculum
		Concluding Reflections on Bridging Worlds
		References
	11 South Asian Education Thinkers
		Introduction
		M K Gandhi
		B R Ambedkar
		Vivekananda
		Tagore
		Sri Aurobindo
		Krishnamurti
		Conclusion
		References
Section II: History of Education
	12 The History of Education in South Asia
		Sanskrit Education: The Vedic Period, c. 1500 BCE to 300 CE
		The Buddhist Period, c. 500 BCE to 300 CE
		The Classical Period, c. 300 to 700 CE
		Islamic and Vernacular Education, c. 1000 CE Onward
		Modern India
		Conclusion
		References
	13 South Asian Islamic Education in the Precolonial, Colonial, and Postcolonial Periods
		Introduction
		Precolonial Islamic Education: Overall Epistemology, Philosophy, and Social Relations
		Two Precolonial Madrasas: Madrasa Rahimiyya and Farangi Mahall
		Colonial-Era Islamic Reform: Deoband
		Colonial-Era Islamic Reform: Barelwi, Ahl-i Hadith, and Shi`i Education
		Postcolonial Muslim Women´s Education
		Conclusion
		References
	14 History of Protestant Missionary Education in India
		English Versus Vernacular Education
		Privatized Vernacular Schooling: Woods Despatch of 1854
		Modern Pedagogy
			Language Primers and Books
			Object Lessons and Science
			From Monitors to the Trained Christian Teacher
			Girl´s Education
		Conclusion
		References
	15 North Indian Educational Liminalities
		The Great Learning
		Theorizing About Education on the Subcontinent
		The Punjab and Education, 1854-9
		Two Audacious Thinkers and Strategists
		Henry Reid
		William Arnold
		Punjabi Imperatives
		Halkabandi´s Implementation in the Punjab
		The New Curriculum, 1857-1859
		The Ending of the Vision, 1860-1861
		Cross-References
		References
	16 Nationalist Education
		Introduction
		Cross-References
		References
	17 History of Colonial Education
		Introduction
		Traditional Debates
		Colonial Education
		Other Educational Actors
		Knowledge and Western Influence
		Reality of Education
		Marginalized Communities
		Non-school Education
		Childhood and Education
		Summary and Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
Section III: School Education Systems and Policies
	18 School Education Systems and Policies in South Asia
		Introduction
		Overview of Education in South Asia
		Comparative Perspectives
		Key Themes
			Colonial Influences
			Political Dynamics
			Natural Disasters
			Education Reforms
			Ensuring Access and Equity
			School Types
			Language and Curriculum
			Teachers
			Examinations
			Decentralization
			Financial Allocations
			Role of International Aid
		Concluding Remarks
		Cross-References
		References
	19 School Education in Afghanistan
		Introduction
		A Brief History of Modern Education in Afghanistan
			Recent History
		The Education System: Structure and Types
			General Education
				Preschool
				Primary Education
				Secondary Education
			Islamic Education
				Informal Mosque Schools
				Madrassas
			Community-Based Education Programs
			Private Schools
		The Curriculum
			Languages of Instruction
		Information and Communications Technology in Education
			Challenges in Implementing ICT in Education
		Enabling Access to Education for All
			Gender and Education: Girls´ Participation in Schooling
				Challenges in the Education of Girls
			Education of Children with Disabilities
			Regional Inequities in Educational Provision
		Role of the State and Nongovernment Organizations
			Governance and Administration
			Nongovernment Organizations (NGOs)
		Legal Frameworks
		Formal Teacher Education and Training
			University Teacher Training Courses
			Number of Teachers and Female Teachers
		Transition from General Education to Higher Education
			Access to Higher Education
			Effectiveness
		Meeting the Challenges of Education for All in Afghanistan
			The Need for Transparency
			Government Policies and Teacher Quality
		Concluding Comments
			The Impact of Continuing Instability
		References
	20 School Education System in Bangladesh
		Introduction
		History of Education in Bangladesh
			Before 1947
			From 1947 to 1971
			Postindependence (After 1971)
		Structure of School Education in Bangladesh
		Types of Schools
			State Schools
			Private Schools
			Private English-Medium Schools (EMS)
			Madrasa
			Technical and Vocational Education
			Nonformal Education
		Education Governance Provision, Regulation, and Funding
		Curriculum
			Preprimary Education
			Primary Education
			Secondary Education
		Assessment and Examination
			Primary Education
			Secondary Education
		Access, Participation, Retention, and Transition in General Education
		Inclusion/Exclusion of Children Deprived of Education
		Government Policies and Programs
		Conclusion
		References
	21 School Education in Bhutan
		Introduction
		History of School Education in Bhutan
		Access, Participation, Retention, Transition
			Survival Rate
			Completion Rate
			Transition Rate
		Regional Spread: Availability in Terms of Infrastructure, Differentiated Provision
		Role of the State, Aided, Not-for-Profit/Nongovernmental Organization, and Private Providers of Education
		Role of Centre and State in Administration, Role of Local Self-Governments
		Structure of School Education
		Levels of Schooling
			Early Childhood Care and Development
			Extended Classrooms
			Primary Schools
			Lower Secondary Schools (VII-VIII)
			Middle Secondary Schools (IX-X)
			Higher Secondary Schools (XI-XII)
		Education Governance: Provision, Regulation, and Funding Systems
		Legal and Policy Framework
		Legal or Administrative Grievance Redressal
		Innovation and Reforms: Quantity to Quality, Learning Outcome, and Methodologies
		Curriculum, Assessments, Examination Systems
			Curriculum
			Differentiated Curriculum
			Examination and Assessment
		Inclusive Education
		Persisting Issues and Challenges
			Lack of Resources
			Access to Education
			Quality of Education
			Equity in Education
			System Efficiency
			Lack of Education Act or Policy
		Globalization and Education
		Conclusion
		References
	22 School System and Education Policy in India
		Introduction
		Education in Colonial India
		Structure of Education System in India
			National System of Education
			Types of Schools
		Education Governance Structures
			Federalism
			Decentralization
			Institutional Structures
		Role of the State
			Education Provision
			Education Regulation
			Education Financing
		Political Economy of Deferred Development of School Education
		Legal Mandates and Remedies
			Constitutional Provisions on Education
			Legislation Related to Education
			Legal Remedies and Administrative Redress
		Universalization of Education: Programs and Schemes
		Curriculum
		Teachers and Teacher Education
		Examinations and Assessments
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	23 Transforming Education in the Maldives
		Introduction
		Education in the Maldives
			History of Education
			The Legal Framework for Education
			Current Structure of the Education System
				Preschool Education
				Primary and Secondary Education
			Challenges of the Current Education System
				Enrollment, Attendance, and Completion
				Educational Attainment
				Teacher Demographics
				Disparity Between Malé and Atoll Schools
		Improving the Quality of Education: Innovation and Reform
			Curriculum and Pedagogical Reform
			Implementing Classroom Reform: Challenges and Opportunities
			Recent Policy Initiatives
				Inclusive Education
				Diversification of Options at Secondary Level
				``Ufaa´´ Office Initiatives
				ICT in Education
			Education in Small Island States
		Cross-References
		References
	24 Schooling Education in Mauritius
		Introduction: Mauritius Under Construction
			Regional Legacies of Mauritius: An African and South Asian Country
			Structure of This Chapter: Histories, Policies, and Research
		Colonized Mauritius
			A Polyglot of Historical Powers
			A Tapestry of Cultural Heritages
		Independent Mauritius
			Democracy, Stability, and Development
			A Country of the South: External and Internal Colonialisms
		Shifting Mauritian Education and Schooling
			Schooling Typologies
				Public Schools
				Private Schools
				Private and Nonreligious Schools
			The Schooling Curriculum and Teachers
			The Trajectory Through Formal Schooling
				Pre-primary and Primary Schooling
				Secondary Schooling
			Political and International Reforms: Shifting Goals for Mauritian Schooling
			Localized Systemic Policy Efforts
				Changing Policy Toward 9 Years of Continuous Basic Education
				Parallel Education
				Education Excellence and Equality
		Current Reforms in the Mauritian Education System
			The Primary School Achievement Certificate
			The Extended Programme
			Reflections on Policy Reform
				Teacher Education and School Curriculum Development
				ICT Educationists: Drivers of Change or Agents to Be Changed?
				A Perspective on Languages
		Concluding Thoughts
		References
	25 Education of Myanmar
		Introduction
		An Overview of the Historical Transition of Myanmar Education
			The Premodern Era (-1852)
			The British Colonial Era (1852-1948)
			The Welfare State Government Era (After Independence) (1948-1962)
			The Military Regime Era (1962-2011)
			Educational Situation Under the Military Regime
		The Current Education System
			Major Characteristics of the Education System
			School System and Types of School
			Educational Administration
			Educational Finance
			Curriculum and Evaluation System
			The Capability of School Teachers and the Current Teacher Education System
		An Ongoing Educational Reform
			Reform of the School System
			Reform of the Educational Administration
			Reform of the Curriculum and Evaluation System
			Reform of the Teacher Education System
		Challenges in the Future
		References
	26 The Status of School Education in Nepal
		Introduction
		Institutionalization of the Modern School: Developments in the Early 1950s
		The System of School Education in Nepal
		The Growth in Enrollments
		Equity in Education
		Improvements in Quality
		Constitutional and Legal Frameworks on Education Rights
		The Governance of School Education
		State Funding for Public Education
		The Growing Significance of Education Privatization in Nepal
		Challenges and Issues
		Conclusion
		References
	27 School Education System in Pakistan
		Introduction to the Context
		Policy Overview
		Structure, Types, and Size of the School System
		Gender and Schooling in Pakistan
		Language of Instruction
		The Role of the Private Sector
		Concluding Reflections
		Cross-References
		References
	28 General Education in Sri Lanka
		Introduction
		History of General Education
			British Influence
			Education Post-independence
			Education Reform in the 1970s and 1980s
			Toward the 1997 Education Reforms
		Recent Education Sector Development Frameworks and Programs
		Stages of Education and School Types
		Patterns of Access and Participation in General Education
			Student Enrolment Rates
			Student Survival Rates
			The Policy Framework to Promote Access and Participation in General Education
		Regional Spread of Infrastructure and Differentiated Provision
		Curriculum
			Primary Education
			Junior Secondary Education
			Senior Secondary Education
			Senior Secondary Education Beyond Grade 11
		Assessment and Examinations
			Grade 5 Scholarship Examination
			General Certificate of Education Ordinary Level (GCE O Level)
			General Certificate of Education Advanced Level (GCE A Level)
			National Assessments of Learning
			Classroom Assessments
		Inclusion and Exclusion
		The Role of the Center and the Provinces in Education Administration
		Education Governance and Funding Systems
			Performance Incentives Within the Public Education System
			The Institutional Foundation for Education Service Delivery
			Foreign Finance
		Current Issues of Education and Policy Needs
			Early Childhood Education (ECE)
			General Education
			Employer Demands
			Globalization
			International Assessments of Learning Outcomes
			Summative Versus Formative Assessment
		Conclusion
		References
Section IV: Higher Education Systems and Policy
	29 Higher Education Systems and Policy in South Asia
		Introduction
		Some Distinctive Features of Higher Education Systems in Each Country
		Gender Equity in Higher Education
		Faculty Preparation and Support
		Research Focus
		Governance of Higher Education
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	30 Nation Building Through Higher Education System Resurgence in Afghanistan
		Introduction
			History
			Entry Requirements
			Academic Governance
			Supreme Council
			Academic Year
			Credit System
			Grading System
			Public or State University
			Private University
			Organizational Structure
		Induction to Higher Education
			BA Programs
			Master Degree Programs
			PhD Programs
		Academic Coordination
			Academic Appointment
			Academic Promotion
			Academic Retirement
		Program Development
		Research and Publication
		E-learning
		Quality Assurance
			Annual Monitoring
			Periodic Review
		Gender Equity
		Autonomy
		Conclusion
		References
	31 Challenges and Developments in the Higher Education System of Bangladesh
		Introduction
		History of Higher Education in Bangladesh
		Structure of Higher Education Systems in Bangladesh
		Higher Education Status in Bangladesh
		Governance and Regulation of Higher Education System in Bangladesh
		Challenges of Higher Education in Bangladesh
		The Way Forward
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		Appendices
		References
	32 Higher Education in Bhutan
		Introduction
		History of Higher Education in Bhutan
		Overview and Current Status of Higher Education in Bhutan
		Access, Participation, Retention, and Transition Practices in Higher Education
		Education Governance
		Higher Education Institutions (HEIs): Governance Structure and Modus Operandi
		Study Programs Offered by the Higher Education Institutions in Bhutan
		Curriculum, Pedagogy, and Assessment Systems
		Use of Technology in Higher Education
		Faculty Preparation, Professional Development, Social and Economic Status, and Career Paths
		Research in Higher Education
		Internationalization of Higher Education in Bhutan
		Quality Initiatives, Reforms, and Innovation
		Legal or Administrative Grievance Redressal System for Students, Teachers, and Administrative and Service Staff, With or Witho...
		Challenges Facing Higher Education in Bhutan
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	33 The Indian Higher Education System
		Introduction
		Structure of the Higher Education System: Programs and Enrolment
			Undergraduate Education
			Professional Education
			Postgraduate Education and Research
			Role of the Private Sector in Higher Education
		Faculty in Higher Education
		Technology in Education: Open and Distance Education
		Challenges of Higher Education Provisioning
			Access and Equity
			Institutional Autonomy and Quality-Related Concerns
			Vocational Education
			Governance and Regulatory Framework
			Internationalization
		Reforms and the Evolution of the Indian Higher Education System: A Review
			The National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF)
		The National Education Policy 2020 and the Drive Towards Quality Education
			Autonomy with Accountability to Institutions and to their Faculty
				Restructuring Higher Education Institutions
				Governance of Higher Education Institutions
				Level-Playing Field for the Private Sector
				Energized, Engaged, and Capable Faculty
			Liberal Arts Education and a new 4-Year Undergraduate Program
				Flexible Duration Undergraduate and Postgraduate Programs
				Integration of Vocational and Professional Education
			Nurturing the Culture of Research: The National Research Foundation
			Financing Higher Education and Research
			Reforms in the Governance and Regulation of Higher Education
		Ensuring the Success of Policy Implementation
		Summary and Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	34 Developmental Pathway of Higher Education in the Maldives
		Introduction: Setting the Context
		Towards Massification
		Financing Higher Education
		Streamlining Institutions and Levels of Qualifications
		Enhancing Governance
			University Governance in the Maldives
			Governance of Colleges and Other Higher Education Institutions
			Professional Councils
		Quality Assurance
			External Quality Assurance
			Internal Quality Assurance
		Other Contemporary Issues for Consideration
			Lack of Diversity in Academic Disciplines
			Research Manpower and Doctoral Education
			Academic Profession in the Maldives
			Use of New Technologies
			Expansion of Alternative Delivery Modes
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	35 Co-existing Agendas for Higher Education in Mauritius
		Introduction to the Mauritian Context
			The Political, Demographic, and Economic Profile of the Mauritius
			Contemporary Major Challenges
		The National Mauritian Higher Education Landscape
			Institutional Typologies, Courses, Enrolment, and Modes of Delivery
				Tertiary Institutions, Enrolment, Range, and Level of Courses Offered
			Publicly Funded Institutions
				PFIs Enrolment
				Courses Offered at PFIs
				Levels of Courses Offered at PFIs
			Private Secondary Education Institutions (PSEIs)
				PSEIs Enrolment
			Distance Education
			Governance, Steering, and Planning of Higher Education
				Tertiary Education Commission (TEC)
				Mauritius Qualifications Authority (MQA)
				Structure of Governance within the PFIs
			Funding the HE System
			Quality Assurance in Higher Education
			Graduate Employability
		Shifting Historical and HE Policy Directives
			Mauritius and Internationalization
				Localized Shapers of the HE Policy System
				Higher Education as Nation Building?
				The Rise of New Orthodoxies
				Contemporary Drivers of HE: The Knowledge Hub?
				Higher Education as a Corporation
			Institutional Impacts of Policy Moves: Two Case Studies
				Case One: The University of Mauritius
				Case Two: Middlesex International Ltd. (Mauritius)
		Conclusion: Creative Growth, Restructuring, and Re-Imaginations of HE
		References
	36 Myanmar´s Higher Education System
		Introduction
		Education in Myanmar - A Short, Historical Perspective
			Monastic Education in Myanmar
			Education in Colonial Period in Myanmar
			Education in Post-independence Period 1948-1962
			Education in the Post-Independence Period 1962-2016
			Education in the Democratic Period from 2016
		School Education and Its Influence on Higher Education
			Present School System and its Influence on Higher Education
			Moving to K-12 and Its Influence on Higher Education
		Main Goal of the National Education Strategic Plan 2016-2021
			Transformational Shifts to Achieve NESP Goals
			Strategies, Components, and End Outcomes to Achieve Transformational Shifts in Higher Education
			NESP Articulation of Challenges of Higher Education
			Financing the NESP for Higher Education
		University Education in Myanmar: Present Status
			Absence of Private Universities
			Nature of Universities
			Centers of Excellence (COE)
			Autonomy
			Financing
				Bachelor´s Degree Programs
				Master´s Degree Programs
				Doctoral Degree Programs
		Higher Education in Myanmar: A High-Level SWOT Analysis
			Strengths
			Weaknesses
			Opportunities
			Threats
		Conclusions
		References
	37 Nepal´s Higher Education System and Policy
		Introduction
			Geographic and Demographic Contexts
			Historical Background of Higher Education Development in the Country
		Higher Education Development, Trends, and Issues
			Development of HE Institutions and Student Enrolments
			Expansion of Access and Equity
			Female Participation in Higher Education and Gender Parity
			Issue of Higher Education Development
				Unbalanced Regional Growth in Terms of Access
			Student Retention
			Students Going Abroad for Study in Self-Financed Mode
			Access to Technical and Vocational Education
			Quality and Efficiency of Higher Education
			Teachers in Higher Education in Nepal
				Other Issues of Teacher Management
		National Initiatives for Higher Education Reform
		A Reflection on the Issues and Challenges
		Summary/Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	38 Pakistan´s Higher Education System
		Introduction
		Education Under Colonialism
		The Hindu-Muslim Split
		1947-2001
			Early History
			HE Faculty Deficit
			Secondary School Feeder System
		2002-Present
			High Growth Phase
			Economic Survey, Ministry of Finance
			International Rankings
			The Balance Sheet
		Contemporary Issues
			The Quality Conundrum
			University-Extremism Nexus
			Academic Freedom
		Summary and Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	39 The Sri Lankan Higher Education Journey
		Introduction
		History of Higher Education
		Overview of the Status of Higher Education
		Access, Participation, Retention, Transition in Higher Education
		Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) Involved in the Provision of Quality Education
		Types of Education
		Curriculum, Pedagogy, and Assessment Systems
		Use of Technology in Education Delivery, Education Administration, Governance
		Faculty in Higher Education
		Research
		Internationalization of Higher Education
		Education Governance
		Challenges in Higher Education
		Quality Initiatives, Reforms, and Innovations
		Legal/Administrative Grievance Redressal System
		Conclusion
		References
Section V: Political Economy of Education
	40 Political Economy of Education in South Asia
		Introduction
		The Context: Educational Challenges in South Asia
		Conceptual Discussion: Political Economy of Education in South Asia
			Emerging Insights
				Challenge of Finance and Weakening of the State
				Failure of Governance and Lack of State Accountability
				Inadequate Regulations and the Challenges of Implementing Them
				Growing Role of Private Money and Networks of Non-state Actors
				Importance of Teachers for Successful Education Reforms
				Democratic Deepening and Greater Civil Society Engagement
			Concluding Thoughts
		Cross-References
		References
	41 New Education Finance
		Introduction
		Low Public Expenditure, New Private Investment?
		Impact Investment in South Asia
		NSOs, Networks, and Impact Investment
			Active NSOs in Education Impact Investment in South Asia
				NSOs Creating Market Opportunities for Education Impact Investment: The Cases of AVPN and Dasra
					AVPN
					Dasra
		Market-Making for Education Impact Investment in South Asia: Preliminary Conceptual Applications and Conclusions
		References
	42 Regional Imbalances in Provisioning and Participation in Education in India and Pakistan
		Introduction
		Regional Inequalities in Educational Access and Outcomes
		Public Financing and Provision of Education
		Governance and Provision of Public Goods: a Framework of Analysis
		Systems of Education in Pakistan and India
		Political Economy Perspectives on Unequal Provision
			Politics
			Heterogeneity and Collective Action
			Inequalities of Land Ownership and Role of the Elite
			Compact and Management of Service Delivery Mechanisms
		Conclusion
		References
	43 Political Economy of Producing Skilled College Graduates in South Asia
		Brief Background on Higher Education in South Asia8
		The Political Economy of Skilling Students: An Unfair Burden on Higher Education
		The Political Economy of Governance: Too Many Controls, Too Little Flexibility
		The Political Economy of Privatization: Private Colleges Are Not Just Diploma Mills
		Summary
		Endnotes
		References
	44 Private Schooling and Tutoring at Scale in South Asia
		Introduction
		What Roles Can Private Schooling and Tutoring Play in Education Systems?
			Participation Trends in Private Schooling and Tutoring
			Reasons for Private Sector Growth
				Lack of Adequate Public Schooling Supply and Presence of Regulations Facilitating Private Schools
				Demand for Private Schooling and Tutoring
			Systemic Consequences and Accountability Responses
				Consequences on Performance or Equity at a System Wide Level
				Accountability Mechanisms
		Discussion: Unresolved Issues When Taking a Systemic Perspective
		Conclusion
		References
	45 The Political Economy of Teachers in South Asia
		Introduction
		Teachers: Critical Inputs in Global Education Systems
		Teachers: Largest Expenditure Item for Governments in the South Asia Region (SAR)
		Teachers: Key Stakeholders and Political Players in Education Systems in the South Asia Region
			Teachers: Key Stakeholders and Critical Political Players
			The Extent of Teacher Politicization in the SAR: Examples from Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan
				Bangladesh
				India
				Pakistan
		Engaging Teachers Is Critical for the Success of Education Reforms
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	46 Implications of Globalization and Economic Reforms for Education Systems in South Asia
		Introduction
		The Meaning and Characteristics of Globalization
			Globalization: Old and New
			Globalization´s Many Faces
			Critiques of Globalization
		Manifestations of Globalization Affecting Human Resource Development
			Globalization and Inequality
			Migrant Workers and Remittances
			Regional Integration in South Asia
		Dealing with It: Promising Initiatives
			Harnessing Technologies
			SDG 2030: The Global Agenda
			SDG 4: The Education Goal
		A Response Framework for South Asia
			Civil Society Activism
		Conclusion
		References
Section VI: Teachers and Teacher Education
	47 Understanding Teachers and Teaching in South Asia
		Introduction
		Context of Teacher and Teacher Education in South Asia
		Situating Teachers and the Teaching Profession
		Approaches to Professional Learning and Development
		Towards a Critical Humanist Teacher Education Agenda
		References
	48 Mapping the Profession of Teaching in South Asia
		Introduction
		Background
		Nature of Employment and Remuneration
		Entry to the Teaching Profession: Recruitment, Deployment, Redeployment, Transfers, and Preservice Education
			Recruitment of Teachers
			Deployment and Redeployment of Teachers
			Preservice Education
		Post-entry: Opportunities for Professional Growth, Career Progression and Performance Appraisal
			Professional Development Opportunities
			Career Progression and Performance Appraisal of Teachers
		Teacher Absenteeism, Accountability, and Grievance Redressal
		Conclusion
		References
	49 A Cultural View of Teachers, Pedagogy, and Teacher Education
		Textbook Culture
		Indigenous Pedagogical Traditions
		Educability
		Pedagogic Cultures in Public and Private Schools
		Teachers´ Voices on Good Teaching and the Profession
		Pedagogic Reform
		Conclusion
		References
	50 Framing Teachers in National Education Policy and in the Popular Media
		Introduction
		Teachers and Teaching: Situating the Global and Local Discourses
		Teachers Representation in Policy and Media: Unpacking Discourses of Derision and Agency
		Context of Teacher Discourses in South Asia
		Teachers in National Policy Discourses
			Overview and Understanding of Teachers Within National Policies
			Multiple and Diverse Conceptions of Education, Teachers, and their Work
			Teachers as Having Deficits and as Part of the Problem
			Teachers and Accountability
			Teacher Quality and Education Quality
			Controlling the Growth of Private Teacher Education Providers
		Teachers in Public Media
			Teacher Quality
			National Education Policy on Teachers
			Teacher Status
		Conclusion
		References
			Policy Documents
	51 Teachers as Agents and Policy Actors
		Introduction
		New Public Management: Teachers as Unaccountable Agents Without Professional Identities
			Teacher Accountability
			Supply-Focused Interventions
			Demand-Focused Interventions
			NPM: Imagination of Teachers as Agents and Policy Actors
		Does the NPM Miss Something About Teachers´ Work?
			Institutional Context of School Education
			Acting ``with´´ Teachers Instead of ``on´´ Teachers
			An Institutional Imagination of Teachers as Agents and Policy Actors
		Conclusion
		References
	52 Learning to Teach
		Introduction
		Situating the Chapter
		Overview of ITE Programs in South Asia
		ITE Policy and Regulatory Environment
		Who Becomes a Teacher?
		Learning How to Teach
		Who Teaches the Prospective Teachers?
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		Appendix One: Overview of Teacher Education in Countries in South Asia
			Afghanistan
			Bangladesh
			Bhutan
			India
			Maldives
			Nepal
			Pakistan
			Sri Lanka
		End Notes
		References
	53 Continuous Professional Development of School Teachers
		Introduction
		Brief Overview of Three Country Contexts
		CPD in the Three Countries
			Bangladesh
			India
			Pakistan
		Forms of CPD in the Three Countries
			Cascade Model
			Teacher Resource Centers/Cluster-Based Training
			Supervision
		Challenge of Quality, Funding, and Scale
		Conclusion
		References
Section VII: Learner Diversity and Educational Marginality
	54 Learner Diversity and Educational Marginality in South Asia
		Introduction
		Marginalization in Education: A Conceptual Understanding
		Challenges Involved in Access to Education
		Privileged Knowledges and Educational Marginalization
		Experiences of Educational Marginalization
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	55 Linguistic Diversity and Marginality in South Asia
		Introduction
		Instability in South Asia
		Linguistic Diversity in South Asia
		Fluidity in Linguistic Behavior
		English in South Asia
		Languages and People on the Margins
		Marginalization of Tribal Languages
		Peripatetic Communities
		Linguistic Diversity and Education
		Toward South Asia Rooted in Multilinguality
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	56 Poverty and Education in South Asia
		Introduction
		An Overview of Education and Poverty in South Asia
		Poverty and Access to Education
			Explaining the Association Between Poverty and Education
			The Relevance of Education to the Poor
		Quality of Education, Private Schooling, and Poverty
			Privatization and Educating the Poor
			Quality Education in Government Schools
		Schooling´s Impact on Poverty
		Conclusion
		Endnotes
		References
	57 Gender Equity in Education
		Introduction
		History of Women´s Education
		Access and Participation of Girls in Education
		Barriers and Enablers for Female Education
			Sociocultural and Economic Factors
			Systemic Features of Education
		Education and Employment
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	58 Education of Children with Disabilities in the South Asian Context
		Introduction
		Issues of Terminology
		Focusing on Educating Children with Disabilities
			Rights-Based Arguments
			Inclusive Schools Are Better Schools for All
			Economic Rationale
		Prevalence Rates: Children with Disabilities
		Educational Exclusion
		Legal Frameworks Supporting the Inclusion of Children with Disabilities
		The 3E Model: Educating Children with Disabilities
			Entry
			Engagement
			Empowerment
		Moving the Agenda Forward
			Rights to but also Rights in Education
			Resources
				Teachers
				Parents
				Material
				Financial
			Research
		References
	59 Education in Conflict Areas of South Asia
		Introduction
		Conflict and Education: Understanding the Link
		Schools as Zones of Contestation
			Attacks on Schools
			Challenges of Maintaining Neutrality
			Recruitment of Children by Armed Groups
		Gender Norms for Education in Conflict Situations
		Effect of Conflict on Quality of Education
			Quality of Learning in Conflict Zones
			Curricular and Textbook Revisions
			The Role of Language in Conflicts
		Conclusion
		References
	60 Child Labor and Education in South Asia
		Introduction
		International Policies and Perspectives on Child Labor and Education
		Ensuring Education for Working Children: The South Asian Context
			National Policies and Measures
			Role of Nongovernmental Organizations
		Normative Childhood and South Asian Childhoods
		Child Labor and Education: Critical Perspectives
		Ways Forward
		Cross-References
		References
	61 Educating South Asia´s Internally Migrating Children
		Introduction
		Mobility-Dependent Livelihoods in South Asia
		``Migrants´´ in the Policy Gaze: Multiple Exclusions
			Understanding Stocks and Flows of Internally Migrating Populations
			Identifying Mobile Out of School Children
		Enabling the Right to Education for All Children
			Education, Human Capital Development, and Poverty Alleviation
		Approaches to Education Inclusion for Internally Migrating Children
			An Ontological Crisis? Modern Schooling and Its Terms of Inclusion
			Leaving No-One Behind by Increasing Education System Flexibility
				Networked Schooling
				Residential Schools
				Seasonal Hostels
				Bridge Schools
				Mobile Schools
				Alternative Basic Education Provision
				Open Learning
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
Section VIII: Knowledge and Curriculum
	62 Knowledge and Curriculum Landscapes in South Asia
		Introduction
		Conceptual Engagements
			The Curriculum as a Concept
			The State and the Curriculum
		Curricular Frameworks: Power and Contestations
			Frameworks and Institutions
			Power and Contestation
		Curriculum as (re)productive?
			Constructing Compliant Subjects: Educational Discourse and Colonial Difference
			Producing Student-Citizens Post-Independence: Hegemony and Marginalization
		Curriculum, Religion and Modernity
			Colonial Curriculum
			Curriculum Developments Post-Independence
		Gender and the Curriculum
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	63 National Identity and the History Curriculum
		Introduction
		National Identity and History Education
		Dilemmas of Nation-Building: Colonial and Postcolonial Trajectories
		Education and Nation-Building
			Curriculum Frameworks and Institutions
			Curricular Approach to Nation-Building
		Historical Revisionism and the Production of National Imaginaries
		National Identity and the ``Other´´
		Discussion and Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	64 Civics and Citizenship Education in India and Pakistan
		Introduction
			Framework to Situate Civic Education
		Colonial Civics: Masking the State, Sustaining the Dominance
		Postcolonial Citizen: Colonial Legacies and Ruptures
			Civilizing Missions in Postcolonial Nation-States
			The National Ideology: Contestations Between Religious and Secular Visions
			Pedagogical Approaches to Citizenship Education
		Neoliberal Globalization, Identity Movements, and the Idea of Citizenship
		Further Areas of Research
		Concluding Remarks
			Implications
		References
	65 Textbooks, Gender, and Conflict in South Asia
		Introduction
		Gender and Nation Building
			The Intersection of Gender and Nation Building
			Education as a Unifying Narrative/Reproducer of Violence
		Portrayals of Men and Women in Textbooks
			Textbooks, Gender, and Conflict in South Asia
			Gender Stereotypes
			Militarization and Masculinities
			Representation
			The Potential to Promote Violence and Conflict through Textbooks
			Resistance to Change in Curriculum & Textbooks as Nationalism
		Gender in Curriculum: The Cases of Pakistan and Sri Lanka
		The Pakistan Case
			Conflict in Pakistan
			Gender Equality in Pakistan
			Textbook Publication
			Review of Studies on Pakistani Textbooks
		Sri Lankan Case
			Conflict in Sri Lanka
			Gender Equality in Sri Lanka
			Textbook Publication Institutions in Sri Lanka
			Review of Studies on Textbooks in Sri Lanka
		Conclusion
		References
	66 Conceptions of School Curriculum in South Asia
		Introduction
		National Curriculum Frameworks: Broad Contours and Debates
		Perspectives on Educational Aims, School Knowledge, and Pedagogies
			The Aims of Education
			The Conception of School Knowledge
			Pedagogic Imagination and Agency
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	67 Assessment of Student Learning in South Asia
		Introduction
		Country-Specific Assessment Practices and Related Concerns
			India
				Assessment Practices in Schools
				Reforms in Assessment Policies (RtE Act, 2009)
				No-Detention Provision (NDP)
				School-Based Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE)
				No Board Exams till Class VIII
				Backlash Against the Proposed Amendments
				Large-Scale Assessments
			Pakistan
				Assessment Practices in Schools
				Assessment-Related Concerns
				Aga Khan University Examination Board (AKU-EB): Attempts at Reform Through Independent Board
			Sri Lanka
				Assessment Practices in Schools
				School-Based Assessment
				Grade 5 Scholarship Examination
				General Certificate of Education Ordinary Level (GCE O Level)
				General Certificate of Education Advanced Level (GCE A level)
				Year-End Assessments
				Assessment-Related Concerns
				Large-Scale Assessments
			Bangladesh
				Assessment Practices in Schools
				Internal Assessment
				External Assessment/Public Exams
				Primary Stage
				Secondary Stage
				Assessment-Related Concerns
				Large-Scale Assessments
		Common Concerns Across Countries
		Public Examinations for Schools
			Confines Learning
			Makes Curriculum Redundant
			Influences Pedagogy
			Stress and Anxiety
			Impact on Teaching Profession
			Guidebooks and Private Coaching
			Celebrating Success, Not Learning
			Tension Between Assessment for Learning and Assessment of Learning
			Cheating and Other Malpractices
		Learning Surveys
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
Index