Handbook of Chitin and Chitosan: Volume 1: Preparation and Properties

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Handbook of Chitin and Chitosan
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Contents
List of Contributors
1 Chitin and chitosan: origin, properties, and applications
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Chitin and chitosan
		1.2.1 Sources of chitin
	1.3 Extraction of chitin
		1.3.1 Chemical extraction
			1.3.1.1 Demineralization process
			1.3.1.2 Deproteinization process
			1.3.1.3 Decolorization
		1.3.2 Biological extraction
			1.3.2.1 Enzymatic demineralization
			1.3.2.2 Enzymatic deproteinization
			1.3.2.3 Fermentation
	1.4 Chitosan preparation methods
		1.4.1 Chemical and biological deacetylation of chitin
	1.5 Physicochemical properties
		1.5.1 Molecular weight
		1.5.2 Viscosity
		1.5.3 Solubility
		1.5.4 Water-binding capacity and fat-binding capacity
	1.6 Characterization of chitin and chitosan
		1.6.1 Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) analysis
		1.6.2 X-Ray diffraction analysis
		1.6.3 13C Nuclear magnetic resonance analysis
		1.6.4 Thermogravimetric analysis for chitin and chitosan
		1.6.5 Scanning electron microscope analysis
	1.7 Application of chitin and chitosan
		1.7.1 Biomedical application
		1.7.2 Wastewater treatment
		1.7.3 Fuel cell
		1.7.4 Packaging of food
		1.7.5 Textile industries
		1.7.6 Bioplastics
		1.7.7 Nanocomposite
	References
2 Chitin and chitosan: chemistry, solubility, fiber formation, and their potential applications
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Chitin and chitosan: chemistry and solubility
		2.2.1 Chitin and chitosan chemistry
		2.2.2 Chitin and chitosan extraction
		2.2.3 Chitin and chitosan solubility
	2.3 Chitin and chitosan: fiber formation
		2.3.1 Electrospinning process
		2.3.2 Factors affecting the electrospinning process
			2.3.2.1 Electrospinning parameters
			2.3.2.2 Solution parameters
			2.3.2.3 Ambient parameters
		2.3.3 Characterization of chitin and chitosan fibers
		2.3.4 Applications of chitin and chitosan fibers
			2.3.4.1 Chitin and chitosan fibers for biomedical applications
			2.3.4.2 Chitin and chitosan fibers for dye removal and wastewaters treatment
			2.3.4.3 Chitin and chitosan fibers for cosmetic applications
			2.3.4.4 Other applications for chitin and chitosan fibers, in different fields
	2.4 Conclusions
	References
3 PEGylated chitin and chitosan derivatives
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Chitin and chitosan
	3.3 PEGylation and PEGylated chitin/chitosan derivatives
	3.4 Fabrication of PEGylated chitosan derivatives
		3.4.1 Amino group substitution
		3.4.2 O-substitution
		3.4.3 Miscellaneous approaches
		3.4.4 Solubilization of chitosan prior to derivatization
		3.4.5 PEGylated cross-linked chitosan
	3.5 Characterization of PEGylated chitosan and chitin derivatives
		3.5.1 Structural analysis
			3.5.1.1 Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy analysis
			3.5.1.2 Nuclear magnetic resonance analysis
			3.5.1.3 Gel permeation chromatography or size exclusion chromatography
			3.5.1.4 Thermogravimetric analysis
			3.5.1.5 Differential scanning calorimetry
			3.5.1.6 Wide-angle X-ray diffraction analysis
		3.5.2 Determination of the degree of substitution
		3.5.3 Ductility
		3.5.4 Solubility
		3.5.5 Cytocompatibility
		3.5.6 Aggregation
	3.6 Applications of PEGylated derivatives of chitosan
		3.6.1 Medical applications
		3.6.2 Thermoresponsive PEGylated chitosan hydrogels
		3.6.3 Gene delivery of chitosan derivatives
		3.6.4 Formation of nanofibres
	3.7 Conclusions
	References
4 Solubility, chain characterization, and derivatives of chitin
	4.1 Solubility of chitin
		4.1.1 NaOH/urea aqueous solution
		4.1.2 CaCl2/methanol solvent
		4.1.3 N,N-dimethylacetamide/lithium chloride solvent
		4.1.4 Ionic liquid
	4.2 Chain characterization of chitin
		4.2.1 The configuration of chitin
			4.2.1.1 Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
			4.2.1.2 X-ray powder diffraction spectroscopy
			4.2.1.3 Solid 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
		4.2.2 The length of chitin chain
	4.3 Derivatives of chitin
		4.3.1 The etherification of chitin
			4.3.1.1 The carboxymethyl chitin
			4.3.1.2 The quaternization of chitin
		4.3.2 The graft of chitin
			4.3.2.1 The graft of chitin powder
			4.3.2.2 The graft of chitin nanofiber film
		4.3.3 The O-acylation of chitin
			4.3.3.1 Preparation of O-acylated chitin in heterogeneous system
				4.3.3.1.1 Acid catalyst method
				4.3.3.1.2 Activation of chitin
			4.3.3.2 Preparation of O-acylated chitin in homogeneous system
				4.3.3.2.1 Methanesulfonic acid system
				4.3.3.2.2 Trifluoroacetic anhydride system
				4.3.3.2.3 The lithium chloride/dimethylacetamide system
				4.3.3.2.4 The ionic liquid system
	Acknowledgment
	References
5 Solubility, degree of acetylation, and distribution of acetyl groups in chitosan
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Chemistry and structure of chitosan
	5.3 Acetylation of chitosan
		5.3.1 Methods of deacetylation of chitin to chitosan
			5.3.1.1 Chemical deacetylation
			5.3.1.2 Enzymatic deacetylation
		5.3.2 Degree of acetylation of chitosan
			5.3.2.1 Measurement of degree of acetylation of chitosan
				5.3.2.1.1 Elemental analysis
				5.3.2.1.2 Titration methods
				5.3.2.1.3 Acid hydrolysis/ high-performance liquid chromatography
				5.3.2.1.4 Pyrolysis GC-MS
				5.3.2.1.5 Infrared
				5.3.2.1.6 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
			5.3.2.2 Distribution of acetyl groups
			5.3.2.3 Relationship between acetylation and properties
	5.4 Solubility of chitosan
		5.4.1 Chitosan solubility: applications and requirements
		5.4.2 Solubility of chitosan in solution
		5.4.3 Modifications of chitosan for solubility enhancement
	5.5 Conclusion
	References
6 Chitin nanomaterials: preparation and surface modifications
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Structure and properties of chitin
	6.3 Chitin-based nanomaterials
		6.3.1 Chitin nanofiber
			6.3.1.1 Pure chitin nanofiber
			6.3.1.2 Chitin-based blended nanofiber
			6.3.1.3 Modified chitin nanofiber
			6.3.1.4 Nanofiber from chitin derivatives
		6.3.2 Chitin nanowhisker
		6.3.3 Chitin nanocomposite
		6.3.4 Polymer/chitin bionanocomposite
		6.3.5 Chitin nanogel
		6.3.6 Crab chitin-based two-dimensional soft nanomaterials
	6.4 Preparation of chitin-based nanomaterials
		6.4.1 Electrospinning of chitin
		6.4.2 Aqueous counter collision method
		6.4.3 Self-assembly
		6.4.4 Microcontact printing
		6.4.5 Mechanical treatment
		6.4.6 Ultrasonication
		6.4.7 TEMPO-mediated oxidation
		6.4.8 Extraction of chitin nanowhisker
		6.4.9 Gelation method
		6.4.10 Casting and evaporating technique
	6.5 Surface modification of chitin
		6.5.1 Chemical modification of chitin surface
			6.5.1.1 Acetylation of chitin
			6.5.1.2 Surface modification of chitin nanowhiskers
			6.5.1.3 Oxidative modification
		6.5.2 Hydrophobization of chitin surface
		6.5.3 Hydrophilization of chitin surface
		6.5.4 Physical modification of chitin surface
		6.5.5 Ultrasound-assisted surface modification of chitin
		6.5.6 Plasma treatment
	6.6 Conclusions
	References
7 Importance of electrospun chitosan-based nanoscale materials for seafood products safety
	7.1 Optimization
		7.1.1 Definition of chitosan molecular weight
		7.1.2 Determination of concentrations
		7.1.3 Solvent system
		7.1.4 Preparation of electrospinning dope solutions
	7.2 Determination of electrospinning parameters
		7.2.1 Applied voltage
		7.2.2 Adjustment proper distance
		7.2.3 Flow rate
		7.2.4 Environmental conditions
		7.2.5 Selection of collector
	7.3 Characterization of fabricated nanoscale material(s)
		7.3.1 Definition of morphological characteristics of chitosan-based nanomaterial
		7.3.2 Encapsulation efficiency
		7.3.3 Controlled release property of chitosan-based nanomaterial
		7.3.4 Thermal decomposition of chitosan-based nanomaterial
		7.3.5 Zeta potential and size of chitosan-based nanomaterial
	7.4 Use of electrospun nanomaterials for seafood products safety
		7.4.1 Chitosan-based nanofiber coating
		7.4.2 Bio/active material-loaded chitosan-based nanofiber coating
		7.4.3 Chitosan nanoparticles
	7.5 Conclusion
	References
8 Alternative methods for chitin and chitosan preparation, characterization, and application
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Chitin production
		8.2.1 Synthesis of chitin and enzymes involved in the main commercial sources
		8.2.2 Raw materials: fungi and insects
			8.2.2.1 Fungi
			8.2.2.2 Insects
	8.3 Current chitosan production
		8.3.1 Alternative methods of production
			8.3.1.1 Fermentations
			8.3.1.2 Enzymic methods
			8.3.1.3 Combined biological methods
			8.3.1.4 Other methods
		8.3.2 Quality control of chitin production
	8.4 Conclusions
	References
9 Current research on the blends of chitosan as new biomaterials
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Chitosan biomaterial
		9.2.1 Preparation of chitosan
		9.2.2 Properties of chitosan
			9.2.2.1 Physical properties
			9.2.2.2 Chemical properties
			9.2.2.3 Biological properties
		9.2.3 Applications of chitosan
			9.2.3.1 In wastewater treatment
			9.2.3.2 In food industry
			9.2.3.3 In agriculture
	9.3 Modification of chitosan
		9.3.1 Polymer blending technique
		9.3.2 Chitosan blends
	9.4 Natural polymers blends with chitosan
		9.4.1 Chitosan/starch
		9.4.2 Chitosan/collagen
		9.4.3 Chitosan/proteins
		9.4.4 Chitosan/natural rubber latex
	9.5 Chitosan blends with synthetic polymers
		9.5.1 Chitosan/hydrophilic polymers
		9.5.2 Chitosan/nylon
		9.5.3 Chitosan/polyacrylamide
		9.5.4 Chitosan/poly(lactic acid)
	9.6 Chitosan-based hydrogels
	9.7 Conclusions
	Acknowledgment
	References
10 Chitin and chitosan-based aerogels
	10.1 Introduction
		10.1.1 Classification of aerogels
		10.1.2 Chitin and chitosan: sources and properties
	10.2 Chitin and chitosan-based aerogels: preparation process
	10.3 Characterization of chitin and chitosan-based aerogels
		10.3.1 Morphological analysis/microscopic analysis
			10.3.1.1 Scanning electron microscope
			10.3.1.2 Transmission electron microscopy
		10.3.2 Porosity
		10.3.3 Thermal properties
			10.3.3.1 Thermogravimetric analysis
			10.3.3.2 Differential scanning calorimetry
		10.3.4 Raman spectra
		10.3.5 Tensile property of aerogels/mechanical property
		10.3.6 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
		10.3.7 X-ray diffraction
		10.3.8 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
		10.3.9 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
		10.3.10 Water contact angle
	10.4 Future aspects of aerogel
	10.5 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
11 Chitin, chitosan, marine to market
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Origin and sources of chitin and chitosan
	11.3 Synthesis of chitin and chitosan
		11.3.1 Synthesis of chitin
			11.3.1.1 Synthesis of chitin by chemical method
				11.3.1.1.1 Deproteinization
				11.3.1.1.2 Demineralization
				11.3.1.1.3 Decolorization
			11.3.1.2 Synthesis of chitin by biological method
		11.3.2 Synthesis of chitosan
		11.3.3 Synthesis of derivatives of chitin and chitosan
	11.4 Properties of chitin and chitosan
		11.4.1 Physiochemical properties of chitin and chitosan
		11.4.2 Biological properties of chitosan
	11.5 Potential applications of chitin and chitosan
		11.5.1 Biomedical application of chitosan
			11.5.1.1 Wound dressing/wound healing
			11.5.1.2 Burn treatment/artificial skin graft
			11.5.1.3 Tissue engineering
			11.5.1.4 Drug delivery
			11.5.1.5 Ophthalmology
		11.5.2 Industrial applications of chitosan
			11.5.2.1 Water engineering
			11.5.2.2 Agriculture
			11.5.2.3 Food processing
			11.5.2.4 Cosmetics industries
			11.5.2.5 Photography
			11.5.2.6 Chitosan gel for light-emitting device
			11.5.2.7 Textile industry
			11.5.2.8 Paper industry
	11.6 Economic potential of chitin and chitosan
	11.7 Conclusions
	References
	Further reading
12 Miscibility, properties, and biodegradability of chitin and chitosan
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Physicochemical properties of chitin and chitosan
		12.2.1 Miscibility/solubility of chitin and chitosan
			12.2.1.1 Dissolution by inorganic reagents
			12.2.1.2 Dissolution by polar solvents and strong acids
			12.2.1.3 Solubility in ionic liquids
			12.2.1.4 Enhanced solubility of chitin and chitosan on their modification
		12.2.2 Dissolution mechanism
			12.2.2.1 Acid-catalyzed hydrolysis
			12.2.2.2 Base-catalyzed hydrolysis
			12.2.2.3 Cleavage/dissolution by ionic liquids
	12.3 Biological properties of chitin and chitosan
		12.3.1 Antioxidant property
		12.3.2 Anticancer/antitumor property
		12.3.3 Antimicrobial property
		12.3.4 Antiinflammatory property
		12.3.5 Neuroprotective property
	12.4 Biodegradability of chitin and chitosan
		12.4.1 factors affecting the biodegradability
	12.5 Concluding remarks
	References
13 Chitin and chitosan: current status and future opportunities
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Properties of chitin and chitosan
		13.2.1 Structural properties
		13.2.2 Biological properties
	13.3 Chitin, chitosan, and their derivatives
		13.3.1 Biosynthesis of chitin
		13.3.2 Chitin and chitosan production
			13.3.2.1 Chemical process
			13.3.2.2 Biological process
	13.4 Applications of chitin and chitosan
		13.4.1 Industrial applications
			13.4.1.1 Cosmetics
			13.4.1.2 Water engineering
			13.4.1.3 Paper and textile industry
			13.4.1.4 Food industry
			13.4.1.5 Other industrial applications
		13.4.2 Biomedical applications of chitosan
			13.4.2.1 Tissue engineering
			13.4.2.2 Wound healing/wound dressing
			13.4.2.3 Drug delivery
	13.5 Conclusion and future perspectives
	References
14 Fungal chitosan: prospects and challenges
	14.1 Introduction
		14.1.1 Chitin and chitosan
			14.1.1.1 Chitin
			14.1.1.2 Chitosan
			14.1.1.3 Applications of chitosan
	14.2 Current commercial production and its disadvantages
	14.3 Green synthesis of chitosan
	14.4 Fungal chitosan
		14.4.1 Significance of fungal sources of chitosan
		14.4.2 Production of fungal chitosan
			14.4.2.1 Mucor rouxii
			14.4.2.2 Rhizopus oryzae
			14.4.2.3 Gongronella butleri
			14.4.2.4 Other fungal strains
			14.4.2.5 Use of industrial residues as culture medium for fungal chitosan production
			14.4.2.6 Avenues and challenges of commercial production of fungal chitosan
	14.5 Future prospects
	14.6 Conclusion
	14.7 Acknowledgments
	References
	Online resource
15 Preparation, properties, and application of low-molecular-weight chitosan
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Preparation of low-molecular-weight chitosan
		15.2.1 Chemical methods
		15.2.2 Physical methods
		15.2.3 Biological methods
	15.3 Properties of low-molecular-weight chitosan
		15.3.1 Physicochemical properties
		15.3.2 Biological activities
	15.4 Applications of low-molecular-weight chitosan
	15.5 Agriculture
		15.5.1 Aquaculture
		15.5.2 Food technology
	15.6 Conclusions
	References
Index
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