Handbook of Chinese Migration to Europe

Front Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyrights Informations
Contents
Acknowledgements
Illustrations
	Figures
	Tables
Abbreviations
Notes on Contributors
Introduction
	Part 1: Statistical Data on Chinese Populations in Europe
	Part 2: Migration Motivations and Pathways
	Part 3: China as a Diaspora State
	Part 4: Economic Opportunities and Ethnic Entrepreneurship
	Part 5: Socialization and Intersecting Inequalities
	Part 6: Identity Constructions and Cultural Representations
	Conclusion
	References
Part 1: Statistical Data on Chinese Populations in Europe
1 How Many Chinese are Living in Europe?
	1 Introduction
	2 Who Is Who? Concepts and Categories Applied in Counting Chinese Migrants
	3 Demographic Statistics
	4 Trying to Determine the Number of Chinese Migrants in the World
	5 Statistical Data on the Global Chinese Diaspora
	6 International Migration Versus Diaspora Statistics on Total Chinese Population in Europe
	7 Statistical Data on the Stock of Valid Permits for Chinese Nationals in Europe by Country
	8 Types of Residence Permits Held by Chinese Nationals in Europe, 2015–2021
		8.1 Valid Permits for Educational Reasons
		8.2 Employment Permits
		8.3 Annual Flows of First Permits
		8.4 All Types of Valid Permits by Sex Ratio
	9 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
Part 2: Migration Motivations and Pathways
2 Chinese Academic Mobility to Europe
	1 Introduction
	2 Academic Mobility from China to Europe: Trends, Geographies, Policy, and Social Contexts
	3 The Family in Chinese Academic Mobility: a Literature Review
	4 Research Context and Methodology
	5 To Go, Stay, or Return as a “Good Child”
	6 Being a Good Wife/Mother or Husband/Father
	7 Looking Ahead and Beyond
3 Chinese International Students in Europe
	1 Introduction
	2 State of the Art
		2.1 Study Abroad: Past and Present
		2.2 A Vast and Diverse Literature
			2.2.1 Motives for Chinese Students to Pursue Higher Education Overseas
			2.2.2 Cultural Adjustments and Challenges
			2.2.3 Academic Performance and Studying Strategies
			2.2.4 Social and Cultural Integration
			2.2.5 Impact on Host Countries
			2.2.6 Mental Health and Well-Being
			2.2.7 Life Trajectories Post Overseas Studies
			2.2.8 Students as Ambassadors
		2.3 Shift towards a Heterogeneous Representation
		2.4 Chinese Students in Europe
	3 Theoretical Framework: Push, Pull, and Mooring Model
	4 Methodology and Dataset
	5 Findings: Push Factors
	6 Findings: Pull Factors
		6.1 Personal Conditions and Preferences as Pull Factors
	7 Findings: Mooring Factors
		7.1 Academic Life in Europe
		7.2 Living in Europe: Safety, COVID-19, and Rising Racial Tensions
		7.3 Socialization with Local Chinese and the Homeland
	8 Discussion and Conclusion
		8.1 Push Factors
		8.2 Pull Factors
		8.3 Mooring Factors
		8.4 Recent Challenges
4 From Production to Reproduction
	1 Introduction
	2 Migration Theories: Reconciling Functionalism with Lifestyle—Capabilities and Aspirations
	3 Methodology, Data, and Participant Profile
	4 The First Wave of Migration: Entrepreneurs Pursuing a Better Future
	5 The Second Wave of Migration: Lifestyle Migrants Pursuing a Good Enough Present
	6 Conclusion
	References
5 The Rise and the Fall of the Golden Visa
	1 Introduction
	2 Current State of Research
	3 Methodology and Data
	4 Case Studies of Greece and Portugal and the Latest Updates
		4.1 The Change of GV Regulations to Accommodate Investors
		4.2 Housing Market, Tourist Industry, and GV s
	5 Chinese Investment in Greek and Portuguese GV s as a Way to “Run” to Europe
		5.1 The Upsurge of Chinese GV Investors and Chinese FDI
		5.2 Chinese GV Holders: Investors, Migrants, or People on the “Run”?
	6 Conclusion and Prospective Research Directions
6 Temporary Labour Migration and Chinese State-Led Infrastructure Development in Serbia
	1 Introduction
	2 Centring the State in China–Europe Migration Research
	3 Labour Migration and China’s State-Led Infrastructure Development
		3.1 Casualization and Permanent Temporariness
		3.2 Localization and Labour Regime Segmentation
		3.3 Managerial Migrants and Collective Asceticism
	4 Studying Chinese State-Led Infrastructure Development in Serbia
	5 From 16 + 1 to Casualized Labour on the Belgrade–Budapest Railway
	6 State-Led Localization on the Belgrade Bypass
	7 Managerial Migrants at the Zijin Bor Copper Mine
	8 Conclusion
7 Understanding the Emotional Dynamics and Aspirations of Statusless Chinese Migrants in the UK
	1 Introduction
	2 Irregular Chinese Migration to Europe: a Literature Review
		2.1 Development and Globalization
		2.2 Relative Deprivation
		2.3 Household Strategy
		2.4 Cumulative Causation, Migration Brokerage, and Infrastructure
	3 Intersecting Aspiration and Emotion in Migration Studies
	4 Paradoxical Immigration Control and Pathways into Illegality in the UK
	5 Research Methods
	6 Relationships, Emotions, and Aspirations
		6.1 Relationship with Parents: Sexism, Unfairness, and Guilt
		6.2 Relationships with Spouses: Intimacy, Sexuality, and Disaffection
		6.3 Relationships with Children: Love, Hope, and Estrangement
		6.4 Discussion
	7 Conclusion
Part 3: China as a Diaspora State
8 China’s Diaspora Governance in the Twenty-First Century
	1 Introduction
	2 Studying Migration Policies and Governance of Extraterritorial States
		2.1 Sustaining Power within Authoritarian Political Systems
	3 Governing Extraterritorial Space through Hard and Soft Coercion
	4 Seeking Regime Legitimacy from Chinese Populations Overseas
		4.1 Strengthening Diaspora Governance to Gain Party Legitimacy
		4.2 Obtaining Discursive Hegemony in Chinese Overseas Language Media
		4.3 Regulating Chinese Heritage Education, Religious Activities, and Cultural Events
		4.4 Responsive and Affective Diaspora Policies and Governance
	5 Sustaining Power by Co-Opting Chinese Overseas Elites
		5.1 Political Representation as Co-Option
		5.2 Co-Opting Transnational Business Associations
	6 Conclusion
9 Diaspora Politics and a Rising China
	1 Introduction
	2 Emigration States and Geopolitical Strategies
	3 Student Migration and Diaspora Politics
	4 Methods
	5 From Economic Assets to Public Diplomats
	6 Student Migrants as Grassroots Ambassadors
	7 Deviations in Local Implementation
	8 Encounters and Collisions in Summer Trips
	9 Conclusion
	References
10 Local Diaspora Engagement and Emigration as a Cultural Resource
	1 Introduction
	2 Diaspora Engagement, Local Development, and Transnational Migration
	3 A Century of Migration from Qingtian to Europe
	4 The Rebirth of Qingtian as “the City in China Closest to Europe”
	5 Digitalization and Grid-Style Management of Qingtian’s Transnational Space
	6 The (Extra)Ordinary Development of Qingtian County?
	7 Conclusion
Part 4: Economic Opportunities and Ethnic Entrepreneurship
11 Chinese Wholesale Markets in Paris
	1 Introduction
	2 Engaging with the Literature on Migration and Entrepreneurship
		2.1 Migrant Entrepreneurs
		2.2 Ethnic Enclaves as a Type of Market
		2.3 Migrant Entrepreneurs’ Role in Globalizing Markets
	3 Chinese Entrepreneurs’ Marketplaces in Paris: a Tale in Three Acts
	4 The Sentier System: an Ethnically Diverse Interstitial Space
	5 Sedaine-Popincourt: a Conflicted Enclave
	6 Aubervilliers: towards a Global Chinese Wholesale Hub in France
	7 Silk Road Paris: a Local Reaction to China’s Global Project
	8 Concluding Remarks and Research Agenda
	References
12 Chinese Entrepreneurs in Russia and Their Transnational Embeddedness
	1 Introduction
	2 Huashang and Context-Specific Research
	3 The Mixed Embeddedness Approach and Transnational Entrepreneurship
	4 Methodology and Data
		4.1 Data Collection and Analysis
		4.2 Jian’ou Entrepreneurs’ Path to Moscow
	5 The Multi-Level Contexts of Transnational Entrepreneurship
		5.1 Macro-Level Context
		5.2 Opportunity Structure Identified and Perceived at the Micro Level
		5.3 Social Networks at the Meso Level
	6 Discussion and Conclusion
	References
13 From Ethnic Restaurants to Local Coffee Bars
	1 Introduction
	2 Embeddedness and Chinese Migrant Entrepreneurship in Europe
	3 Chinese Food Services in Italy: Research Questions and Methodology
	4 Context: Chinese Migrations to Italy
	5 Historical Dynamics of Chinese Food Services in Italy
	6 Coffee Bars as an Ageing Occupational Niche
	7 Chinese Kin Mode of Production in Coffee Bars
	8 Discussion: Historical Contingency and Chinese Migrant Entrepreneurship
	9 Conclusion
14 Migrant Entrepreneurship in the Digital Age
	1 Introduction: The Rise of Daigou among Overseas Chinese
	2 Transnational Migrants, the Informal Economy, and Cross-Border Digital Entrepreneurship
	3 Research Methods
	4 Non-Economically Rational Daigou Phenomena
		4.1 Gift Exchange Based on Guanxi
		4.2 The Age of Professional Daigou
	5 The Daigou Trade beyond Acquaintance Networks
		5.1 Daigou: a Multifaceted Form of Entrepreneurship
		5.2 Gendered Labour and the Cultivation of Seller-Buyer Relationships
	6 The Daigou System: Digital Entrepreneurship, the Migrant Economic Ecosystem, and the Driving Force of Consumption
		6.1 The Transformation of Business Models
		6.2 The End of Daigou?
	7 Discussion and Conclusion
Part 5: Socialization and Intersecting Inequalities
15 Leaving China
	1 Introduction
	2 Women of Chinese Origin in Europe
	3 Research Methods
	4 Leaving China in the 21st Century: New Chinese Female Mobilities to Spain
		4.1 Getting Out of China: an Intersectional Approach to Chinese Female Mobility
		4.2 Why Leave China? The Diverse Motivations behind Mobility
			4.2.1 Professional Mobility
			4.2.2 Emotional Mobility
			4.2.3 Mobility Related to Changing One’s Life Path
			4.2.4 Nuclear Families Engaging in Residential Mobility
	5 Why Leave China? Mobility Strategies and Expectations
	6 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
16 Anti-Asian Racism in Europe
	1 Introduction
	2 Studies on Anti-Asian Racism in Europe: a Long-Obscured Reality
		2.1 Historical Insights on Asian Stereotypes: from the “Yellow Peril” to Today
		2.2 The Sad Reality: Disillusionment with the Myth of the “Model Minority”
	3 Experiences, Narratives, and Struggles against Anti-Asian Racism: Chinese Migrants and Descendants in France
		3.1 Key Question, Methodology, Data, and Theoretical Framework
		3.2 The Subjective Experiences of Anti-Asian Racism during the First Months of the Pandemic
	4 Multiple Narratives of Anti-Asian Racism
		4.1 Denial of Anti-Asian Racism
		4.2 The Role of COVID-19 in the Awareness and Expression of Racism: Social Differentiation among Migrants and Descendants
		4.3 Multiple Ways to Describe and Denounce Anti-Asian Racism
	5 The Resistance and Reactions to Anti-Asian Racism
		5.1 Individual Reactions
		5.2 From Individual Reactions to Collective Mobilization
		5.3 A Gradual Appropriation of the Term “Racism” by the AJCF as a Tool for Collective Action (2010–2021): an Analysis Using Natural Language Processing
	6 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
17 Sexuality, Socialization, and Inequalities on the Move
	1 Introduction
	2 Queer Chinese Migration: a Review
	3 The Present Study
	4 Migration and Settlement
	5 Sexual (Re)Socialization in a Transnational Context
	6 Racial and Health Inequalities on the Move
		6.1 Rethinking Racial Inequalities and Hierarchies
		6.2 Sexual and Mental Health Inequalities
	7 Conclusion
18 Entrepreneurial and Transnational Socialization among Descendants of Chinese Migrants
	1 Introduction
	2 Current Research on Transnational Mobilities from an Intergenerational Perspective
		2.1 An Overview of Chinese Migration to and in Europe: Continuities and Changes
	2.2 Transnational Practices and Mobilities of Migrants’ Descendants
	2.3 China as a New Destination for Transnational Migration
	2.4 International Entrepreneurship and Migrant Entrepreneurs’ Mobilities during the COVID-19 Pandemic
	3 Transmission: an Intergenerational Approach to Chinese Transnational Mobilities
	4 Methodology and Data
	5 Family Businesses as Spaces of Socialization
	6 The Professional Trajectories of Migrants’ Descendants in the Global Age: Renewing Business Models and Social Representations
		6.1 First Steps in China: a Career beyond the Family Business
		6.2 Moving to China and Continuing a Transnational Family Business
	7 The Transmission of Migratory Experience and Its Symbolic, Subjective, and Personal Uses
	8 Conclusions and Future Research Directions
	References
Part 6: Identity Constructions and Cultural Representations
19 Chinese Weekend Schools in Europe
	1 Introduction
	2 A General Review of the Historical Development of CWS in Europe
		2.1 Pioneering Trial Stage (before the 1950s)
		2.2 Foundation-Laying Stage (1960s–1980s)
		2.3 Rapid Development Stage (1990s–2019)
		2.4 Readjustment Period (after 2020)
	3 Models of the Current CWS in Europe
		3.1 Classrooms and School Buildings
		3.2 Teaching Materials
		3.3 Teachers
		3.4 Funding Sources
		3.5 CWS Objectives
	4 Language Loyalty and Identity Building
		4.1 Factors Affecting Immigrants’ Language Loyalty
		4.2 Relationship between Language Loyalty and Identity Building
	5 Conclusion
		5.1 Political Nature of Mother Tongue Identification
		5.2 Instrumental Nature of Mother Tongue Preservation
		5.3 Unique Traits of Chinese Migrants’ Language Loyalty
20 Diversity and Dynamism within the Chinese Church
	1 Introduction
	2 Chinese Catholic Communities in Europe
	3 A Diverse Community Sharing a Common Faith
	4 The Organization of Parishes
	5 The COVID-19 Pandemic: an Opportunity for the Community?
	6 Interactions between Local and Migrant Catholics
	7 The Emergence of New Practices
	8 Conclusion
21 Post-2019 Hong Kong Migration to the United Kingdom
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Data and Methods
	2 Hong Kong as a Mobile City
		2.1 A Refugee Society?
		2.2 The 1997 Exodus: from Zau Naan (走難) to Wui Gwai (回歸)
	3 The Evolving HK Identity
	4 Post-2019 Exodus from Hong Kong: Migration Driver Complexes, Migrant Prototypes, and Migrant Networks
	5 New Hong Kong Migrants in the UK
		5.1 Avoiding Calamities and Migrants “On the Run”
		5.2 Leaving for the Sake of Children
		5.3 Capitalizing on the BN(O) Scheme
	6 Navigating Life Abroad
		6.1 Neighbourhood Networks
		6.2 NGOs Run by Hong Kongers for Hong Kongers
		6.3 Churches
	7 The New HK Diaspora in the UK
		7.1 Diversity, Identity, and Change
		7.2 United or Divided?
	8 Conclusion
22 Cultural Production and Representations of Identity
	1 Introduction
	2 The Debate around the Concept of Chineseness
	3 Sino-Italian Cultural Production and the Theme of Chineseness
	4 Contemporary Sino-Italian Insights
		4.1 Motivations for Cultural Production
		4.2 Cultural Backgrounds
	5 Conclusions
23 Contemporary Popular Media and Cultural Studies of Chinese Migrations to Italy
	1 Introduction
	2 Current State of Research
	3 Research Topic
		3.1 Research Question and Theoretical Framework
	4 Methodology and Data
	5 Analysis, Discussion, and Main Findings
		5.1 Ambivalent Identities on Television
		5.2 Countering Anti-Chinese Narratives through Novels
	6 Conclusion and Prospective Research Directions
Index
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