Handbook of Children and Screens: Digital Media, Development, and Well-Being from Birth Through Adolescence

Foreword
Why a “Handbook?”
Appreciations
Acknowledgements
Contents
Editors and Contributors
About the Editors
Contributors
Introduction
	1	 Trends in Children’s Media Research
	2	 About This Supplement
	References
Part I: Research Concerning Cognitive, Physical, Mental, and Psychosocial Impacts on Children
	Introduction to the Section on Digital Media, Cognition, and Brain Development
		1	 Overview of Chapters in This Section
		2	 Convergent Themes Across Chapters
		3	 What Comes Next
		References
	Digital Media, Cognition, and Brain Development in Infancy and Childhood
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Children’s Processing of Media
			2.2	 Associations Between Children’s Media Use and Brain Structure and Function
			2.3	 Associations Between Children’s Media Use and Cognitive Skills
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Researchers
			4.2	 For Parents and Other Caregivers
			4.3	 For Media Technology Providers
			4.4	 For Policymakers
			4.5	 For Clinicians
		References
	Digital Media, Cognition, and Brain Development in Adolescence
		1	 Background
			1.1	 Cognitive and Brain Development in Adolescence
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Digital Media Use and the Adolescent Brain
			2.2	 Social Media and Socioemotional Development
			2.3	 Digital Media Use and Adolescent Cognition
		3	 Future Research
			3.1	 Research Design and Assessment
			3.2	 A Theory-Driven Approach
			3.3	 Potential Positive Evidence of Media in Adolescence
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Clinicians and Providers
			4.2	 For Policymakers
			4.3	 For Educators
		References
	The Short- and Long-Term Effects of Digital Media Use on Attention
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Momentary Effects of Digital Distractions
			2.2	 Long-Term Effects of Digital Distractions
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Digital Media Use and Language Development in Early Childhood
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Content
			2.2	 Context
			2.3	 Interactivity
			2.4	 Technoference
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Clinicians and Advocacy Groups
			4.2	 For Policymakers
			4.3	 For Educators, Parents, and Other Caregivers
			4.4	 For Media Technology Providers
			4.5	 For Researchers
		References
	Imagination, Creativity, and Play
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Creativity and Fantasy Play
			2.2	 Understanding Media Characters
			2.3	 Media and Social Cognition
			2.4	 Imagined Relationships with Characters
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Digital Media and Neurodevelopmental Differences
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Developmental Domains
			2.2	 Ecological Contexts
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Researchers
			4.2	 For Clinicians and Care Providers
			4.3	 For Policymakers
			4.4	 For Educators
			4.5	 For Technologists
		References
	Introduction to the Section on Screens and Physical Health
	Digital Screen Media Use, Movement Behaviors, and Child Health
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Displacement
			2.2	 Combined Associations
			2.3	 Content and Context
			2.4	 Measurement and Analysis Issues
		3	 Future Research
			3.1	 Healthy Behavior Displacement
			3.2	 Combined Associations
			3.3	 Content and Context
			3.4	 Measurement and Analysis
			3.5	 Research Designs
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Parents and Families
			4.2	 For Educators [4]
			4.3	 For Clinicians and Public Health Leaders
			4.4	 For Policymakers and Governments
			4.5	 For Researchers
		References
	Screen Media, Obesity, and Nutrition
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Purported Mechanisms
			2.2	 Interventions to Reduce Screen Time and Effects on Improving Obesity and Nutrition
			2.3	 Interventions Incorporating Screen Media to Improve Nutrition and Obesity Outcomes
			2.4	 Limitations of Our Knowledge
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Digital Food Marketing and Children’s Health and Well-being
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 How Digital Marketing Differs from Traditional Advertising
			2.2	 Adolescents May Be Uniquely Vulnerable
			2.3	 Marketing Targeted at Minoritized Children
			2.4	 Exploring Potential Solutions
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearm Promotion in Digital Media: Corporate Influences on Adolescent Health
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Marketing Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms in Digital Media
				2.1.1	 Alcohol
				2.1.2	 Tobacco
				2.1.3	 Firearms
				2.1.4	 Summary
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	What Do We Know About the Link Between Screens and Sleep Health?
		1	 Background
			1.1	 Importance of Sleep Among Pediatric Populations
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Types of Digital Media and How They Are Used May Affect Sleep Health Outcomes
			2.2	 Digital Media and Light Exposure Before Bed and During the Night May Have Strong Effects on Sleep
			2.3	 Effects of Interventions Are Small and Difficult to Achieve
			2.4	 What Are the Mechanisms for This Association Between Screen Time and Sleep?
			2.5	 What Are the Limitations of the Current Research?
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Screen Use, Physical Injuries, and Orthopedic Health
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Devices
			2.2	 Distractions
			2.3	 Overuse
			2.4	 Content
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Clinicians and Providers
			4.2	 For Policymakers
			4.3	 For Educators
			4.4	 For Industry
		References
	Introduction to the Section on Digital Media and Mental Health
		References
	Social Media and Youth Mental Health: A Departure from the Status Quo
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Time Spent on Social Media
			2.2	 Problematic Social Media
			2.3	 Content and Context of Social Media Use
			2.4	 Intrinsic Characteristics of the Individual
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Clinicians and Providers
			4.2	 For Policymakers
			4.3	 For Educators and Teachers
			4.4	 For Parents
		References
	Youth Anxiety in the Digital Age: Present Status and Future Considerations
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Primary Care Providers
			4.2	 For Mental Health Providers
			4.3	 For Parents, Caregivers, and Families
		References
	Social Media and Depressive Symptoms
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Media Influences on Self-Harm, Suicidality, and Suicide
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Mass Media Coverage and SSITBs
			2.2	 Social Media Use and SSITB Content
				2.2.1	 Exposure to SSITB Content
				2.2.2	 Cyberbullying
				2.2.3	 Heavy and Problematic Social Media Use
			2.3	 Video Games and SSITBs
			2.4	 Limitations to What We Know
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Youths
			4.2	 For Parents
			4.3	 For Clinicians
			4.4	 For Schools
			4.5	 For Media Platforms
			4.6	 For Policymakers
		References
	Social Media Use, Body Image 	Concerns, and Disordered Eating Among Adolescents
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Idealized Appearance Content and Upward Social Comparisons on Social Media
			2.2	 Self-Presentation and Appearance-Related Social Media Consciousness
			2.3	 “Body-Positive” Content
			2.4	 Conclusions
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Who Is Most at Risk?: Identifying the Risks for Mental Health Problems Related to Social Media
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Which Teens May Be Most at Risk for the Negative Mental Health Effects of Media?
			2.2	 Cisgender Females
			2.3	 Minoritized Identities
			2.4	 Socioeconomic Disadvantage
			2.5	 Preexisting Mental Health Problems
			2.6	 Problematic Engagement with Social Media
			2.7	 Key Limitations and Summary
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Digital Therapeutics in Child Psychiatry: Harnessing Technology to Treat Pediatric Mental Health
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Digital Therapeutics Targeting ADHD
			2.2	 Digital Therapeutics Targeting Anxiety and Depression
			2.3	 Digital Therapeutics Targeting Substance Use
			2.4	 Digital Therapeutics Targeting Nonspecific Psychiatric Symptoms and Overall Wellness
			2.5	 Limitations of the Current Research and Application
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Introduction to the Section on Problematic Use of the Internet in Childhood and Adolescence
		1	 Background
		2	 Chapters
			2.1	 Problematic Internet Use
			2.2	 Gaming Disorder
			2.3	 Dysregulated Use of Mobile/Smartphone
			2.4	 Treatment Considerations in Problematic Screen Use
		3	 Discussion
		References
	Problematic Internet Use: A General Perspective
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Forms of PIU
			2.2	 Assessment
			2.3	 Epidemiology
			2.4	 Underpinning Mechanisms
			2.5	 Effective and Emerging Interventions for PIU
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Gaming Disorder Among Children and Adolescents
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State of Knowledge
			2.1	 Prevalence of Gaming Disorder
			2.2	 Etiology of Gaming Disorder
			2.3	 Individual Factors
			2.4	 Gaming-Related Factors
			2.5	 Environmental Factors
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Dysregulated Use of Mobile/Smartphone
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Measurement and Prevalence of Dysregulated Smartphone Use
			2.2	 Risk Factors and Correlates of Dysregulated Smartphone Use
			2.3	 Limitations of Research on Dysregulated Smartphone Use
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Treatment and Prevention of Internet Use Disorders in Children and Adolescents
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Psychosocial Treatments
			2.2	 Abstinence and Restricting Screen Time
			2.3	 Pharmacotherapy
			2.4	 Prevention
			2.5	 Limitations
		3	 Future Research
			3.1	 Clinical Treatments
			3.2	 Addressing IUDs Outside of the Clinic
			3.3	 Prevention
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Clinicians
			4.2	 For Parents
		References
	Introduction to the Section on Youth Digital Wellbeing
	Adolescents’ Online Communication Practices in a Digital World
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Social Media
				2.1.1	 Direct Messaging
				2.1.2	 Video-Mediated Communication (VMC)
				2.1.3	 Social Gaming
			2.2	 Drivers and Consequences of Adolescents’ Online Communication
				2.2.1	 Self-disclosure
				2.2.2	 Emotional Connection
				2.2.3	 Cyberbullying
				2.2.4	 Vulnerable Groups
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Youth
			4.2	 For Parents and Guardians
			4.3	 For Tech Companies
			4.4	 For Policymakers
		References
	Youth Digital Wellbeing and Social Connectedness
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Mixed Findings Due to Measurement Variability
			2.2	 Movement Toward Embracing Methodological Diversity
			2.3	 Context Is Key
			2.4	 Debunking the Popular Myth That Social Media Is the Enemy of Social Connection
			2.5	 Limitations of Our Current Knowledge
			2.6	 Conclusion
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Clinicians (e.g., Pediatricians, Social Workers, Mental Health Counselors, Psychiatrists)
			4.2	 For Educators (e.g., K-12 Teachers, Media/Tech Specialists, Digital Librarians, Afterschool Youth Workers)
			4.3	 For Policymakers (e.g., Community-Based, State/Federal Level)
			4.4	 For Industry (e.g., Social Media Platforms, Mental Health Apps)
		References
	Empathy, Kindness, and Dignity in a Connected World
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Empathy and Kindness in a Connected World
			2.2	 Dignity in a Connected World
		3	 Future Research
			3.1	 Empathy and Kindness
			3.2	 Dignity
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Educators and Peer Mentors
			4.2	 For Clinicians, Including Mental Health Providers
			4.3	 For Parents
			4.4	 For Tech Designers
			4.5	 For Policymakers
		References
	Parasocial Relationships in Children and Teens
		1	 Background
			1.1	 How Do Children Relate to Media Personalities?
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Learning
			2.2	 Modeling and Persuasion
			2.3	 Improving Intergroup Relationships
			2.4	 Psychological Well-Being
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Online Self-Presentation and Identity: Insights from Diverse and Marginalized Youth
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Types of Online Self-Presentation
			2.2	 Online Self-Presentation and Body Image
			2.3	 Online Self-Presentation Among Marginalized Youth
				2.3.1	 Sexual and Gender Minority Youth
				2.3.2	 Cultural and Racial/Ethnic Minority Youth
				2.3.3	 Migrant Youth
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Researchers
			4.2	 For Policymakers
			4.3	 For Clinicians
			4.4	 For Educators
		References
	Youth Participatory Politics: Understanding and Supporting Civic Engagement in the Social Media Era
		1	 Background
			1.1	 Why Is Youth Civic Engagement Important to Foster?
			1.2	 Limitations of a Risk-Prevention-Only Approach
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Benefits of Hybrid Civic and Political Participation
			2.2	 Risks and Challenges Associated with Youth Political Participation in a Hybrid World
			2.3	 Supportive Learning Environments for Hybrid Civic and Political Engagement
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Parents
			4.2	 For Educators
			4.3	 For Policymakers
		References
Part II: Research on How Media Influence Relationships, Family, Culture, and Society
	Introduction to the Section on Race, Racism, and Digital Media
		1	 In This Section
		2	 Future Research and Recommendations
		References
	Structural Racism in Tech: Social Media Platforms, Algorithmic Bias, and Racist Tech
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Algorithmic Bias and Racist Tech
			2.2	 A History of Harmful Tech
			2.3	 Regulating Children’s Safety Online
			2.4	 Social Media Platforms
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Is Social Media Increasing Risk for Mental Health Problems Among Youth?: It’s Complicated
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Social Media and Adolescent Mental Health
			2.2	 Social Media and Marginalized Youth
			2.3	 Adolescent Mental Health: A Broader Landscape of Challenges
		3	 Future Research
			3.1	 Summary
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Online Racism and Its Impact on Children, Adolescents, and Emerging Adults of Color
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Models of Online Racism
			2.2	 Measurement
			2.3	 Qualitative Studies
			2.4	 Quantitative Studies
			2.5	 Mixed, Multi-, AI, and Other Automated Methods
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Video Games and Race
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Racial Harms in Gaming Spaces
			2.2	 What Happens When Racialized, Gender, and LGBTQIA+ Identities Collide Within Gaming Spaces?
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Participation of Marginalized Youth in Designing a Machine Learning–Based Model to Identify Child Abuse and Neglect
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Applying a Design Justice Approach in ML
			2.2	 Clinician Engagement
			2.3	 Primary Caregiver Engagement
			2.4	 Youth Engagement in ML Design: A Way Forward
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Researchers
			4.2	 For Clinicians
			4.3	 For Educators
			4.4	 For Policymakers
		References
	Radical and Untethered: The Health Benefits of Imagination in Virtual Reality for Black Youth
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Racial Embodiment in VR
		3	 Future Research
			3.1	 Imagination and Health
			3.2	 Radical and Untethered Imaginations in VR
				3.2.1	 Radical Imagination
				3.2.2	 Untethered Imagination
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Online Resistance: The Past, Present, and Future of Challenging Racism with Digital Tools
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Collective Action for Consciousness Raising and Racial Justice
			2.2	 Cultivating Spaces of Care and Joy
			2.3	 Interpersonal Resistance
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Introduction to the Section on Gender, Sexuality, and Digital Media
		1	 Representation of Gender and Sex in Entertainment Media and Pornography
		2	 Seeking Sexual Norms and Sexual Health Information Online
		3	 Romantic Relationship and Interpersonal Development with Online Platforms
		4	 Sexual Media Use as a Risk Factor for Sexual Violence Perpetration and Victimization
		5	 Recommendations for Policy, Programming, and Practices
			5.1	 Educational Settings
			5.2	 Therapeutic Settings
			5.3	 Pediatric Healthcare Settings
		6	 Conclusion
		References
	Representations of Gender and Sexuality in Youth Media
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Representations of Gender in Entertainment Media for Youth
			2.2	 Representations of Sexuality in Entertainment Media for Youth
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Gender and Sexuality: LGBTQ+ Youth Experiences
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Risks
			2.2	 Opportunities
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Researchers
			4.2	 For Policy Professionals and Technologists
			4.3	 For Educators and Service Providers
		References
	Pornography Use During Adolescence: The Current State of Knowledge and Recommendations
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Pornography Use, Sexual Attitudes, Beliefs, and Satisfaction
			2.2	 Online Pornography Use and In-Person Sexual Experiences
			2.3	 Conclusion
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Sexual Health Information Online
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Online Sexual Health Information Seeking: Prevalence, Sources, and Topics
			2.2	 Barriers to Engagement with Online Sexual Health Information
			2.3	 Benefits of Sexual Health Information Online
			2.4	 Misinformation, Trust, and Quality of Sources
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Clinicians and Providers
			4.2	 For Educators
			4.3	 For Policymakers
		References
	Online Sexual Communication and Partner Seeking Among Adolescents
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Online Sexual Communication
			2.2	 Online Partner Seeking
			2.3	 Benefits of Online Sexual Communication and Partner Seeking
			2.4	 Risks of Online Sexual Communication and Partner Seeking
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	It’s Not Just Sexting: Adolescents’ Experiences with Exchanging and Disseminating Nude Images
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Image-Based Sexual Abuse
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Parents, Practitioners, and Educators
		References
	Introduction to the Section on Parenting in the Digital Age
		1	 Parenting in a Rapidly Evolving Digital Age
		2	 Introduction to This Section
		3	 Emerging Section Themes
			3.1	 Parenting Matters Most
			3.2	 Human-to-Human Is Best
			3.3	 Fostering Digital Connection Versus Disconnection
			3.4	 Parenting Strategies Should Matter as Children Mature
			3.5	 Families Are Unique, So Media Habits and Rules Should (Mostly) Be, Too
			3.6	 Sleep Is Hugely Important, So Avoid Media That Disrupts It
			3.7	 Quantity Versus Quality of Screen Time
			3.8	 Parents’ Media Use Matters
			3.9	 Consistent Gaps in the Literature
		4	 Conclusion
		References
	Media and Parenting: Current Findings and Future Directions
		1	 Background
			1.1	 Conceptualizing Parenting of Media Use
				1.1.1	 Mediation
				1.1.2	 Joint Media Engagement
				1.1.3	 Parental Monitoring
				1.1.4	 High-Quality Caregiving
				1.1.5	 Parental Motives and Reasoning
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Beyond Screen Time
			2.2	 How Screen Time Matters
			2.3	 Parental Contributions to Media Use
				2.3.1	 Modeling and Norm Setting
				2.3.2	 Sharenting
				2.3.3	 Parental Media Habits
				2.3.4	 Family Communication
				2.3.5	 Media Moments
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Putting Digital Media in Balance: The Importance of Human-to-Human Interaction for Young Children
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Human-to-Human Interaction Is Essential
			2.2	 Technoference
			2.3	 Co-Viewing and Joint Media Engagement: A Way to Build More Human-to-Human Interaction?
			2.4	 Using Screen Media to Support Human-to-Human Interaction
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Parenting and Screens During Middle Childhood
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Smartphone Ownership
			2.2	 Screen Time
			2.3	 Parental Mediation of Screen Use
			2.4	 Social Media and Gaming
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Moving Beyond Fear and Restriction to Promoting Adolescent Resilience and Intentional Technology Use
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 The On-Going Debate of the Negative vs. Positive Effects of Tech on Teens
			2.2	 Fear and Restriction as a Motivation for New Digital Safety Technologies
			2.3	 Moving Beyond Restriction to Digital Inclusion and Intentional Use
			2.4	 Paradigm Shift to Active Parental Mediation and Positive Digital Parenting
			2.5	 Cautioning Against “One-Size-Fits-All” Solutions
				2.5.1	 Developmental Considerations by Age
				2.5.2	 Family Context
				2.5.3	 Cultural Factors
			2.6	 Empowering Teens Through Teen-Centered Design and Policies
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Technoference in Parenting and Impacts on Parent–Child Relationships and Child Development
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Potential Negatives of Device Use and Technoference for Parents and Parenting
			2.2	 Potential Negatives of Parent Device Use and Technoference for Children
				2.2.1	 Social-Emotional Development
				2.2.2	 Cognitive Development
				2.2.3	 Technoference in Adolescence
			2.3	 Potential Positives for Parents and Parenting: Can Technoference Be Adaptive?
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Practitioners and Educators
			4.2	 For Policymakers
			4.3	 For Media/Tech Companies and Industry
		References
	Family Systems Theory in the Digital Age: Reifying the Digital Level of Analysis
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Introduction to the Section on Cyberbullying and Digital Cruelty
		References
	Cyberbullying and Social Media
		1	 Background
			1.1	 Definitions
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Social Media Use
			2.2	 Prevalence of Cyberbullying on Social Media and Associated Outcomes
			2.3	 Cyberbullying and Social Media Across Countries
			2.4	 The School’s Responsibility in Responding to Cyberbullying on Social Media
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Digital Cruelty’s Impact on Self-Esteem and Body Image
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Criminological, Psychological, and Developmental Aspects of Pandemic Strain and Online Cruelty
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Removal of Positively Valued Stimuli
			2.2	 The Presence of Negative Stimuli
			2.3	 Failure to Achieve Desired Goals
			2.4	 Coping Strategies
			2.5	 The Importance of Family
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Online Hate Speech Among Adolescents: Theory, Research, and Recommendations
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 A New Definition for an Old Phenomenon
			2.2	 Frequency Rates and Assessment of Online Hate Speech Involvement
			2.3	 Theory and Research on Online Hate Speech Perpetration
			2.4	 Theory and Research on Online Hate Speech Victimization
		3	 Future Research
			3.1	 What Are the Methodological Challenges in Online Hate Speech Research?
			3.2	 How Can We Increase Adolescents’ Engagement Against Online Hate Speech?
			3.3	 What Are Effective Strategies to Prevent Online Hate Speech Involvement Among Adolescents?
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Introduction to the Section on Media Policy
		References
	Digital Policy Trends: Regulations, Interventions, and Policy Solutions
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Online Harms
			2.2	 Privacy and Data Protection
			2.3	 Consumer Law
			2.4	 Consensus, Divergence, and Tensions
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Policymakers
			4.2	 For Educators and Researchers
		References
	Social Media Use in Childhood and Adolescence: Minimizing Its Adverse Effects Through Corporate Social Responsibility and European Union Regulations
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Distinguishing Credible from Sham: Supporting Young People to Navigate Online
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Children’s Privacy in the Digital Age: US and UK Experiences and Policy Responses
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 The Family Context
			2.2	 The Educational Context
			2.3	 The Health Context
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Bridging America’s Homework Gap by Closing the Digital Divide
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Research Question 1: How Did the Digital Divide Affect Children During the Pandemic?
			2.2	 Research Question 2: What Actions Have Been Taken to Close the Digital Divide?
			2.3	 Research Question 3: What Are the Underlying Causes of the Digital Divide?
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Global Perspectives on Youth and the Digital Environment: Learnings from Majority World Countries
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Opportunities and Risks
			2.2	 Youth in the Mobile Internet
			2.3	 Gender
			2.4	 Parents and Schools
			2.5	 The Pandemic
			2.6	 Regulation
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
Part III: Digital Domains
	Introduction to the Section on Education Technology
		1	 Overarching Themes
		2	 Future Research
		3	 Recommendations
		4	 Conclusion
		References
	The State of Educational Technology Research and Practice
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Education Technology During the Pandemic and Future Emergencies
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Digital Ethics and Equity in K-12 Blended and Online Learning
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Reframing the Target
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Policymakers
			4.2	 For Educators
		References
	The Importance of Digital Media Literacy
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Mitigating Harm with Digital Media Literacy
			2.2	 Digital Media Literacy in Education
			2.3	 Equity, Access, and Identity
			2.4	 Generative Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Digital Media Literacy
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	The Explosion of EdTech: Can Its Promise Be Fulfilled?
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Ed Tech and Mathematics Learning
			2.2	 Literacy Apps and E-Books for Learning
			2.3	 Socioemotional Skills Development Through Apps
			2.4	 Ed Tech: Room for Improvement
		3	 Future Research
			3.1	 Coviewing with Adults
			3.2	 Coplaying with Peers
			3.3	 Researching the Factors that Matter
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Researchers
			4.2	 For Parents and Educators
			4.3	 For Pediatricians
		References
	Children, Education, and Technologies: Current Debates, Key Concerns, and Future Directions Around Data Privacy, Surveillance, and Datafication
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 The Nature and Impact of Datafication
			2.2	 Current Safeguards Against Datafication
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Educators
			4.2	 For Parents
			4.3	 For Policymakers
			4.4	 For edtech Providers
			4.5	 For Funders and Investors
		References
	Introduction to the Section on Video Gaming, Violence, and Gambling
		References
	Video Gaming and Its Effects on Children and Adolescents: Research Priorities and Recommendations
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Violent Video Games and Aggression
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Effects of Violent Video Game Play on Aggression-Related Outcomes
			2.2	 Explaining Violent Video Game Effects
			2.3	 Conclusions
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Gaming Convergences with Other Digital Technologies: Gambling, Pornography, Social Media, and Streaming
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Gaming and Gambling
			2.2	 Gaming and Social Media
			2.3	 Gaming and Problematic Pornography Use
			2.4	 Gambling, Gaming, and On-Demand Video Streaming
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Online Gambling in Youth
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Prevalence and Gambling Preferences Among Youth
			2.2	 Factors Associated with GD in Adolescents/Youth
			2.3	 Assessment of GD in Youth
			2.4	 Gambling-Related Consequences in Youth
			2.5	 GD Treatment in Youth
			2.6	 GD Prevention in Youth
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Introduction to the Section on Emerging Technologies
		1	 Generalizability
		2	 Methodological Limitations
		3	 Ethical Concerns
		References
	Growing Up with Artificial Intelligence: Implications for Child Development
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Children’s Learning from AI
			2.2	 Children’s Social Interactions with AI
			2.3	 Children’s Understanding of AI
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Parents, Caregivers, and Educators
			4.2	 For Technology Developers
			4.3	 For Policymakers
		References
	Children’s Understanding and Use of Voice-Assistants: Opportunities and Challenges
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Children Talking to Voice-Assistants
			2.2	 Voice-Assistants as Information Sources
			2.3	 Voice-Assistants as Social Partners
			2.4	 Challenges for Young Users of Voice-Assistants
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Social Robots and Children’s Development: Promises and Implications
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Understanding of Social Robots
			2.2	 Social Robots in Education and Therapeutic Contexts
			2.3	 Moral Relationships with Social Robots
		3	 Future Research
		4	 Recommendations
			4.1	 For Caregivers, Educators, and Clinicians
			4.2	 For Robot Designers
			4.3	 For Policymakers
		References
	Immersive Horizons: Navigating the Impacts of Virtual Reality on Children and Families
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 Pain Distraction
			2.2	 Lessons from Pediatric Psychiatry
			2.3	 Education
			2.4	 Safety Training
			2.5	 VR and Visual Development
			2.6	 Insights from Screen Media Research
		3	 Future Research
			3.1	 What Are the Potential Differential Impacts of VR on Children of Different Ages?
			3.2	 How Will Increasing Familiarity with VR Technology Impact the Long-Term Effectiveness of VR Applications for Children?
			3.3	 How Will Caregiver VR Usage Influence Parent–Child Interactions and Relationships, and What are the Implications for Children’s Development?
			3.4	 How Can We Leverage the Data Generated by VR Use for Good While Protecting Children’s Data and Privacy from Targeted Advertising or Worse?
		4	 Recommendations
		References
	Children’s Understanding of Digital Tracking and Digital Privacy
		1	 Background
		2	 Current State
			2.1	 What Do Children Think Technology Can Know About Them?
			2.2	 What Do Children Understand About Privacy in the Digital Domain?
			2.3	 How Do Children Conceptualize Digital Tracking?
		3	 Future Research
			3.1	 What Are the Risk Understandings of Children of Different Ages?
			3.2	 What Are Effective Ways to Educate Children About Digital Privacy Risks and to Counter Their Misconceptions?
			3.3	 What Constitutes Child-Appropriate Design of Privacy Information and Controls?
		4	 Recommendations
		References
Correction to: Youth Participatory Politics: Understanding and Supporting Civic Engagement in the Social Media Era
	Correction to: Chapter 35 in: D. A. Christakis, L. Hale (eds.), Handbook of Children and Screens, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-69362-5_35
Index