Handbook of Biorefinery Research and Technology: Production of Biofuels and Biochemicals

Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
About the Editor
About the Section Editors
Contributors
Biofuel Production Technologies:
	Introduction
	1 Production of Ethanol from Plant Biomass
		Introduction
		1G Bioethanol
			Bioethanol from Corn
				Conventional Dry Grind Process
				Granular Starch Hydrolysis Process
		2G Bioethanol
			Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass
			Hydrolysis of Lignocellulosic Biomass
			Approaches to Biomass Hydrolysis and Fermentation
			Fermentation of Cellulosic Sugars
			Pentose Fermentation
			Co-fermentation of Mixed Sugars into Ethanol
		Techno-economic Analysis
		Life Cycle Assessment
		Conclusion and Future Prospects
		Cross-References
		References
	2 Potential of Thermo-tolerant Microorganisms for Production of Cellulosic Bioethanol
		Introduction
		First-Generation and Second-Generation Bioethanol Production
		Advantages of Thermo-Tolerant Yeasts for Cellulosic Bioethanol Production
			Separate Hydrolysis and Fermentation (SHF)
			Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation (SSF)
			Consolidated Bioprocess (CBP)
			Simultaneous Saccharification, Fermentation, and Distillation (SSFD)
		Process Intensification in Bioethanol Production
			Concentrating Bioethanol After Fermentation
			Dehydration Membranes
			Ethanol-Selective Membranes
			Combination of Different Membranes for Ethanol Recovery
		Development of Thermo-Tolerant Yeasts for Cellulosic Bioethanol Production
			Enhancement of Stress Resistance for Efficient Fermentation at High Temperatures
			Development of Cellulase-Expressing Yeasts for Utilization of Cellulosic Biomass
		Heterologous Protein Production alongside Bioethanol Production
		Future Prospects
		Conclusions
		References
	3 Ethanol Production by Recombinant CBP Yeasts
		Introduction
		Consolidated Bioprocess
		Yeast Cell Wall Structure and Anchoring Proteins
		Optimization of Anchor Protein Alteration for Surface Display
		Ethanol Production from Cellulosic and Hemicellulosic Materials
		Conclusion and Future Perspective
		References
	4 Biobased Production of Alkane and Alkene Bio-jet Fuels
		Introduction
		Characteristics of Jet Fuel
		Bio-jet Fuel Production from Various Feedstocks
			From Lignocellulosic Biomass (LCB)
				LCB to Jet Fuel
				Via Alcohol to Jet Fuel
				Gas to Jet Fuel
			From Glycerol
			From Oil or Lipid (Triacylglycerol)
		Metabolic Pathways for Alka(e)ne Production
		Exploring Different Microbes for Hydrocarbon Production
			Cyanobacteria
			Bacteria
		Various Strategies to Improve Hydrocarbon Production
		Conclusions and Future Prospects
		References
	5 Production of Branched Chain Higher Alcohols from Cellulosic Sugars
		Introduction
		Isobutanol (2-Methyl-1-Propanol, Isobutyl Alcohol)
			Isobutanol Production in Wild-Type Organisms
			Metabolic Pathway of Isobutanol Production
			Yeast Metabolic Engineering for Isobutanol Production
			Metabolic Engineering of Bacteria for Isobutanol Production
				E. Coli
				Corynebacterium glutamicum
				Bacillus subtilis
			Lignocellulosic Biomass as Sustainable Feedstock for Isobutanol Production
		Isopropanol
			Microbial Isopropanol Production
			Microbial Production of Isopropanol Using Cellulosic Sugars
		3-Methyl-1-Butanol (Isoamyl Alcohol or Isopentanol)
			Microbial 3-Methyl-1-Butanol Production
				Non-Fermentative Pathway
				IPP/DMAPP Pathway
				Isovaleryl-CoA Pathway
			Production of 3-Methyl-1-Butanol from Different Feedstocks
		2-Methyl-1-Butanol
			Microbial 2-Methyl-1-Butanol Production
				Production of 2-Methyl-1-Butanol in Engineered Escherichia coli
				Production of 2-Methyl-1-Butanol in Engineered Corynebacterium glutamicum
			Production of 2-Methyl-1-Butanol from Different Feedstock
		Conclusion
		References
	6 Fermentative Biohydrogen Production for Sustainable Energy
		Introduction
		Methods of Hydrogen Production
			Chemical Methods
			Electrochemical Method
			Thermochemical Methods
				Steam-Methane Reforming
				Gasification of Biomass
			Biochemical Methods
				Direct Biophotolysis
				Indirect Biophotolysis
		Fermentative Hydrogen Production
			Various Feedstocks for Fermentative Biohydrogen Production
			Photo Fermentation for Biohydrogen Generation
			Dark Fermentation for Biohydrogen Generation
				Pyruvate-Formate Lyase (PFL) Pathway
				Pyruvate-Ferredoxin Oxidoreductase (PFOR) Pathway
				Parameters Affecting Dark Fermentative Hydrogen Production
			Combined Processes for BioH2 Production
				Sequential Photo and Dark Fermentation
				Sequential Dark Fermentation and Anaerobic Digestion
				Integrated Dark Fermentation and Microbial Fuel Cell
		Downstream Processing of Fermentative Hydrogen
		Economic Outlook
		Conclusion and Future Prospects
		References
	7 Recent Advances in Anaerobic Digestion of Lignocellulosic Resources Toward Enhancing Biomethane Production
		Introduction
		Anaerobic Digestion Overview
			Wet and Dry AD
			Mesophilic and Thermophilic AD
			Batch and Continuous AD
			Single-Stage and Two-/Three-Stage Process
		Challenges and Solutions
			Slow Hydrolysis Rates
				Mechanical Pretreatment
				Thermal Pretreatment
				Chemical Pretreatment
				Biological Pretreatment
			Volatile Fatty Acid Accumulation
				Codigestion
				Additives Supplementation
			Ammonia Toxicity
		Future Prospects
		Conclusion
		References
	8 Techno-economic Analysis and Life Cycle Assessment of Biofuels Production in a Cellulosic Biorefinery
		Introduction
			Sustainable Processes
			Biofuel Market
				Bioethanol
				Biobutanol
				Biohydrogen
				Biogas/Biomethane
		Techno-Economic Analysis (TEA) and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
			Techno-Economic Analysis Methodology
			Life Cycle Analysis Methodology
		TEA and LCA of Various Biofuel Production Steps
			Comparison of Economics of Various Pretreatment Technologies for Biofuel Production
			TEA of Biofuel Technologies: Combined Study of All the Process Stages
			Life Cycle Assessment of Biofuel Production Technologies
		Future Prospects
		Conclusions
		References
Production Technologies of Platform and Specialty Chemicals:
	Introduction
	9 Microbial Production of Pyruvic, Lactic, and 3-Hydroxy Propionic Acid from Renewable Resources
		Introduction
		Pyruvic Acid
			Strain Development for Pyruvic Acid Production
			Production of Pyruvic Acid from Cost-Effective Resources
		Lactic Acid
			Strain Development for Microbial Production of Lactic Acid
			Production of Lactic Acid from Cost-Effective Resources
		3-Hydroxy Propionic Acid
			Strain Development for 3-Hydroxy Propionic Acid
			Production of 3-Hydroxypropionic Acid from Cost-Effective Resources
		Conclusion
		References
	10 Microbial Production of Dicarboxylates: Succinic Acid, Malic Acid, and Itaconic Acid
		Introduction
		Fermentative Production of Dicarboxylic Acids
			Succinic Acid (SA)
				Biological Pathways for SA Production
				Native and Engineered Production Hosts
			Malic Acid (MA)
				Strain Development for Microbial Production of MA
				Production of Malic Acid from Cost-Effective Resources
			Itaconic Acid (IA)
				Fundamentals of Industrial Itaconic Acid Production with A. terreus and U. maydis
				Itaconic Acid Production from Lignocellulosic Biomass
				Alternative Hosts for Itaconic Acid Production
		Economic Outlook
		Future Prospects
		Conclusions
		References
	11 Metabolic Engineering of the Shikimic Acid Pathway in Escherichia coli for Production of Derived Aromatic Compounds
		Introduction
		The Central Carbon Metabolism and the Biosynthesis of the Precursors of the Shikimic Acid Pathway in Escherichia coli
		The Shikimic Acid Pathway and Its Interconnection with the Aromatic Amino Acid Branches
		Metabolic Engineering of the Central Carbon Metabolism and the Shikimic Acid Pathway for Aromatic Compounds Overproduction Pur...
		Metabolic Engineering Strategies for the Overproduction of Relevant Aromatic Compounds Derived from the SHK Pathway in E. coli
			The DHQ Node
			The DHS Node
			The Chorismate Node
		Economic Outlook
		Conclusion and Future Prospects
		References
	12 Microbial Production of Diamines
		Introduction
		Natural Diamine Pathways in Microorganisms
		Cadaverine
			Biosynthesis of Cadaverine
			Microbial Engineering to Produce Cadaverine
		Putrescine
			Biosynthesis of Putrescine
			Microbial Engineering to Produce Putrescine
		1,3 -Diaminopropane
			Biosynthesis of 1,3-Diaminopropane
			Microbial Engineering to Produce 1,3-Diaminopropane
		Other Relevant Diamines
			Ethylenediamine
			1,6-Diaminohexane
			Long-Chain Diamines
		Production of Diamines from Alternative Carbon Sources
		Economic Outlook
		Future Prospects
		Conclusion
		References
	13 Microbial Production of C2-C5 Diols
		Introduction
		Biosynthesis of C2 Diol: Ethylene Glycol (EG)
		Biosynthesis of C3 Diols
		Biosynthesis of 1,3-PDO
		Biosynthesis of 1,2-PDO
		Biosynthesis of C4 Diols
		Biosynthesis of 1,4-BDO
		Biosynthesis of 1,3-BDO
		Biosynthesis of 1,5-Pentanediol and 1,3-Pentanediol
		Economic Outlook
		Future Prospects
		Conclusions
		References
	14 Dual Production of Microbial Exopolysaccharides and Polyhydroxyalkanoates Using a Biorefinery Approach to Replace Synthetic...
		Introduction
		Exopolysaccharides
			Introduction
			Production of EPS
			Microbial Exopolysaccharide Biosynthesis Pathways
			EPS as a Synthetic Polymer Substitute
				Replacement of Polyacrylates in Cosmetic Industry
				Polycarboxylate Ethers Substitute in Concrete Industry
				Synthetic Glues Substitute in Adhesive Industry
		Polyhydroxyalkanoates
			Introduction
			Biosynthesis Pathways
		Dual Production of EPS and PHA
			Heterologous Production of EPS and 2-Hydroxyacid-Containing Polyesters
		Conclusion
		References
	15 Microbial Production of Oleochemicals
		Introduction
		Alternative Carbon Sources Derived from Waste Streams for Microbial Oil Production
			Lignocellulosic Sugars
			Short-Chain Fatty Acids (SCFAs)
			Glycerol
			Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
		Microbial Oils Production with Different Oleaginous Microorganisms
			Yeast and Fungi
			Microalgae
				Inorganic Carbon Source: Photoautotrophic Microalgae Growth
				Organic Carbon Source: Heterotrophic Microalgae Growth
				Inorganic and Organic Carbon Source: Mixotrophic Microalgae Growth
			Bacteria
			Genetically Modified Microorganisms to Increase Innate Oleaginous Capacity
		Lipid Extraction
		Microbial Oils Applications
			Biolubricants
			Waxes
			Biosurfactants
			Biofuels
		Economic Outlook
		Future Prospects
		Conclusion
		References
	16 Microbial Production of Sugar Alcohols
		Introduction
		Chemical Synthesis of Sugar Alcohols
		Microbial Production of Some Industrially Important Sugar Alcohols
			Arabitol (or Arabinitol) (C5H12O5)
				Biosynthetic Pathways
					Arabitol from Cellulosic Sugars
				Strain Improvement
			Xylitol (C5H12O5)
				Chemical Synthesis of Xylitol
				Biosynthetic Pathways
				Strain Improvement
			Mannitol (C6H14O6)
				Chemical Synthesis
				Enzymatic Synthesis
				Microbial Biosynthesis
				Mannitol from Sugar-Rich Biomass
				Strain Improvement
			Erythritol (C4H10O4)
				Biosynthesis
				Microbial Biosynthesis
				Strain Improvement
			Sorbitol (C6H14O6)
				Microbes Used in Sorbitol Production
				Sorbitol from Biomass
				Strain Improvement
		Economic Outlook
		Conclusion
		References
	17 Amino Acids
		Introduction
		Recent Functional Tools and Strategies for Amino Acid Production
			Genome-Editing Tool
			Biosensor
			Amino Acid Transport Engineering
			Transcriptional Regulator Engineering
			Utilization of Sustainable Resources
		Systems Metabolic Engineering for Amino Acid Production
			l-Glutamate
			l-Arginine
			l-Lysine
			l-Methionine
				l-Methionine Biosynthesis Pathway and Its Regulation in Microbes
				Metabolic Engineering of E. coli and C. glutamicum for l-Methionine Production
				Two-Step l-Methionine Production Process Via Fermentation and Biotransformation
			l-Cysteine
			l-Histidine
		Economic Outlook
		Future Prospects and Conclusion
		References
Biorefinery Based on Oil Palm and Forest Plants:
	Introduction
	18 Sustainable Biorefinery Concept of Oil Palm and Forest Plants Value Chains for Renewable Source of Chemicals, Materials, an...
		Introduction
		Sources of Oil Palm Biomass (OPB)
		Palm Oil Biorefinery Concept
		Potential Pre-treatment Methods for OPB
		Potential Products from OPB
			Biofuels and Bioenergy
			Bio-based Chemicals
			Biofertilizers
			Biocomposites
		Contribution of Palm Oil to an Industry-Based Circular Bioeconomy Toward Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
		Liquid Wastes from the Oil Palm Industry and Current Methods of Their Treatment
		Biorefinery Potential of POME
		Forestry Biomass as Renewable Resource for Value Added Products
		Forest Biorefinery: An Integrated Process
		SDG of Forestry Biorefinery
		Economics and Future Prospects of Forestry Biomass
		Conclusions
		References
	19 Life Cycle Analysis on Production of Renewable Chemicals, Materials, and Energy from Oil Palm Wastes
		Introduction
		Crude Palm Oil and Oil Palm Residue
			Crude Palm Oil Processing
			Properties of Palm Oil-Based Biodiesel and Its Production
			Characteristics and Treatment Methods of EFB
			Characteristics of Raw POME
			Anaerobic Treatment Technologies for POME Treatment
		Environmental Assessment Method
		Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
			Goal and Scope Phase
			Life Cycle Inventory Phase
			Life Cycle Assessment Phase
			Interpretation Phase
		LCA on Conversion of Oil Palm Wastes to Chemical (Biodiesel)
		LCA Analysis on Conversion of Oil Palm Wastes to Material (Compost) and Energy
			Compost and Energy
			Economic Outlook
			Future Prospects
		Conclusions
		References
	20 Utilization of Palm Oil Waste as a Sustainable Food Resource
		Introduction
		Palm Oil Wastes - Based On the Type
			Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME)
			Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB)
			Mesocarp Fiber (MF)
			Palm Kernel Shell (PKS)
			Palm Kernel Meal (PKM)
			Palm Oil Trunk (POT)
			Palm Oil Frond (POF)
		Nutritional Values of Selected Palm Oil Wastes
		Palm Oil Wastes as Sustainable Food Resources
		Traditional Usage
			Utilization of Palm Oil Trunks into Brown Sugar or Alcoholic Drinks in Asian Countries
			Palm Oil Waste or Residues as Raw Materials for Mushroom Cultivation and Animal Feed Production
				Mushroom Cultivation
				Animal Feed Production
		Modern Usage
			Palm Oil Trunk as Potential Food Fibers
			Palm Oil Trunk Sap as Potential Feedstock For Biotechnology Products
		Economic Outlook and Future Prospects
		Conclusions
		References
	21 Biofuels from Forest Logging Residues
		Introduction
			Forest Biomass Categories
				Forest Logging Residues
			Industrial By-products
				Wood Fuel Plantations
		Forest Residues
			Factors Involved in Forest Residues Collections
			Biomass Properties
				Basic Analysis
				Physical Properties
				Proximate Analysis
			Chemical Composition
		Forest Biomass Conversion Technology
			Pre-treatment
			Biofuel Products
			Pellet Production
			Briquettes Production
			Bioethanol Production
		Fossil-Biomass Compatible Mix: Smooth Shift to Biofuel
			Sustainable Assessment of Post-logging Biofuel
			Thriving the Energy Market: Outlook for Forestry Residues
		Conclusions
		References
	22 Indigenous Forest Plants and New Biomaterials for Food Sustainability
		Introduction
		Forest´s ``Salad Bowl´´
			Parkia speciosa Hassk
			Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw.
			Gigantochloa spp.
			Gnetum gnemon L.
			Dryobalanops oblongifolia Dyer
			Molineria latifolia (Dryand.) Herb ex kurz
			Champeria manillana (Blume) Merr.
			Syzygium polyanthum (Wight) Walp.
			Garcinia atroviridis Griff. Ex T. Anderson
		Delicious Delicacies from Mangrove Forest
			Acanthus ilicifolius L.
			Sonneratia spp.
			Avicennia spp.
			Pluchea indica (L.) Less
			Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir
			Acrostichum aureum L.
		Forest Biomass as Source for Biomaterials Development in Food Application
			Texturing Agents
			Advanced and Edible Food Packaging
			Pathogen Control Agents
			Sensors for Food Quality Control
			Forest Biomass as Source of Energy for Cooking
			Value-Added Food Products from Biomaterials Process
			Charcoal and Wood Vinegar as Medicine
		Economic Outlook
		Future Prospects
		Conclusions
		References
	Algal Biorefinery:
		Introduction
	23 Microalgae Isolation and Cultivation Technology for Mass Production
		Isolation of Microalgae
		Autotrophic Cultivation
		Heterotrophic Cultivation
		Mixotrophic Cultivation
		Photobioreactors
			Open Ponds Photobioreactors
			Tubular Photobioreactors
			Flat Plate-Airlift Reactors
			Column Photobioreactor
		Microalgae Growth Model
			Light Incident Angle
			Light Intensity and Temperature
			Transmission and Reflection
			Transfer of Gases to the Atmosphere
			Fertilizer/Nutrient Uptake
			Photosynthesis Kinetics and Photoinhibition
		Economy Outlook
		Future Prospect
		Conclusions
		References
	24 Mitigation of Industrial Flue Gases and Wastewaters Through Algal Biomass Cultivation: Processes and Perspectives
		Introduction
		Sources and Compositions of Industrial Flue Gases and Wastewaters
			Flue Gases
			Wastewaters
				Municipal Wastewater (MWW)
				Industrial Wastewater (IWW)
				Agricultural Wastewater (AWW)
		Algae-Mediated CO2 Capture and Wastewater Remediation
		Algal Cultivation in Closed and Open Photobioreactor Systems
		Technological Challenges Associated with Scaling-Up
		Algal Biomass Valorization and Its Downstream Applications
		Future Prospects of Large-Scale Algae-Based CO2 Capture and Wastewater Valorization Installations and Facilities
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	25 Microalgae Harvest Technology
		Introduction
		Harvesting Methods
			Preprimary Harvesting Technique
				Screening
			Primary Harvesting Technique
				Flocculation
				Sedimentation
			Secondary Harvesting Technique
				Filtration
				Centrifugation
			Tertiary Harvesting Technique
		Emerging Technologies
		Future Prospect
		Conclusion
		References
	26 Valuable Compounds Produced by Microalgae
		Introduction
		Characteristics and Classification
			Cyanophyta
			Chlorophyta
			Rhodophyta
			Haptophyta
			Bacillariophyta and Ochrophyta
			Dinoflagellata
		Potential Global Market of Added-Value Compounds Sourced from Microalgae
		Biorefinery of Microalgal Added-Value Compounds
		Microalgal Pigments
			Carotenoids
			β-Carotene
			Astaxanthin
			Lutein
			Zeaxanthin
			Lycopene
			Phycobiliproteins
		Microalgal Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs)
		Microalgal Vitamins and Antioxidants
		Other Valuable Compounds Sourced from Microalgae
		Commercial Applications of Valuable Compounds Produced by Microalgae
		Microalgae in Food Industry
		Microalgae in Aquaculture and Farming Industries
		Microalgae in Cosmeceutical Industry
		Microalgae in Pharmaceutical Industry
		Conclusions
		References
Index