Handbook of Biodegradable Materials

Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
Part I: Fundamentals of Biodegradations
	1 Biodegradable Materials: Fundamentals, Importance, and Impacts
		Introduction
		Fundamentals of Biodegradation
		Importance of Biodegradation
		Types of Biodegradable Materials
			Polymers Biodegradation
			Plastics Biodegradation
			Other Materials Biodegradation
		Impacts of Biodegradation
			Environmental Impacts of Biodegradation
			Health Impacts of Biodegradation
			Industrial and Technological Impacts of Biodegradation
			Foods and Agricultural Impacts of Biodegradation
		Conclusions
		Future Perspectives
		References
	2 Biodegradation Process: Basics, Factors Affecting, and Industrial Applications
		Introduction
		Definition of Biodegradation and Biodegradable Materials
		Principles of the Biodegradation Process
			Abiotic Degradation
			Biotic Degradation
		Factors Affecting Biodegradation
			Abiotic Factors
			Biotic Factors
			Characteristics of Polymers
		Classification of Biodegradable Polymers
		Industrial Applications of Biodegradation
			Bioremediation of Crude Oil
			Industrial Applications of Anaerobic Digestions
				Organic Waste Treatment and Resource Recovery
				Production and Applications of Biogas
				Production and Applications of Digestate
		Conclusions
		Future Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
	3 Fundamentals of Biodegradation Process
		Introduction
		Fundamental Biodegradation Reactions
			Biodegradation of Organic Pollutants
			Microbial Interaction with Inorganic Pollutants
			Biotransformation of Metals
		Metabolic Mechanisms in Biodegradation
			Metabolic Biodegradation
			Cometabolic Biodegradation
		Factors Affecting Microbial Degradation
			Environmental Factors
				Organic Matter Content
				Nitrogen
				Redox Conditions
			Biological Factors
			Other Environmental Factors
				pH
				Salinity
				Temperature
		Biodegradation of Organic Pollutants
			Aliphatics
			Alkanes
			Halogenated Aliphatics
			Alicyclics
			Aromatics
			Dioxins and PCBs
			Heterocyclic Compounds
			Pesticides
		Biodegradation by Genetically Modified Microbes
		Conclusion
		Future Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
	4 Anaerobic Biodegradation: The Anaerobic Digestion Process
		Introduction
		Anaerobic Biodegradation
		Anaerobic Digestion Is the Principal Anaerobic Biodegradation Process
			Anaerobic Digestion
			Anaerobic Digestion: Concept and Models
			Microbiology and Metabolic Pathways of Anaerobic Digestion
				Hydrolysis
				Acidogenesis
				Acetogenesis
				Methanogenesis
		Energy and Economic Recovery of Biogas Produced by Anaerobic Digestion
			What Is Biogas?
			Roles of the Constituent Gases of Biogas
			Purification of Produced Biogas
		Anaerobic Digestion Assessment Techniques
			Biochemical Methane Potential
			Determination of Biochemical Methane Potential
			The Kinetics of Biogas and Methane Production
		Factors Affecting Anaerobic Digestion
			Temperature
			Potential of Hydrogen
			Ammonia
			Sulfide
			Carbon-to-Nitrogen Ratio
			Load and Organic Composition
			Pretreatment
			Design of the Digesters
		Conclusion
		Future Perspectives
		References
	5 Recent Advances in Microbial Biodegradation
		Introduction
		Microbial Biodegradation
			Bacterial-Mediated Biodegradation
			Fungal-Mediated Biodegradation
			Algal-Mediated Biodegradation
		Enzymes Involved in Microbial Biodegradation
		Factors Affecting Microbial Degradation Process
			Moisture
			pH
			Temperature
			Microbes
				Exogenous Versus Indigenous
				Consortium Versus Individual (Pure) Microbe
		Adaptation of Microorganisms to the Toxic Environment
		Application of Microbial Biodegradation
			Microbial Degradation of Plastics
			Microbial Degradation of Pesticides
			Microbial Degradation of Antibiotic
		Nanobiodegradation
			Nanoparticles Enhance Microbial Growth
			Nanoparticles for Immobilization of Microorganisms
		Conclusions
		Future Perspectives
		References
	6 Concept and Significance of Microbial Consortium in the Biodegradation Process
		Introduction
		Microbial Infallibility Hypothesis
		Roles of Microorganisms in Biodegradation
		Microbial Consortium
		Bacteria
		Fungi
		Algae
		Enzymes
		Conclusion
		Future Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
	7 Mechanism of Microbial Biodegradation: Secrets of Biodegradation
		Introduction
		Microbial Biodegradation
			Mechanism of Microbial Biodegradation
			The Absorption Mechanism
			The Breakdown Mechanism
		Types of Bioremediation
			Air Bioremediation
			Soil Bioremediation
			Water Bioremediation
		Bacterial Biodegradation
			Aerobic Biodegradation
			Anaerobic Biodegradation
			Fungal Biodegradation
		Algal Biodegradation
		Yeast Biodegradation
		Factors Affecting Microbial Degradation
			Water
			Oxygen
			Temperature
			Light
		Conclusion
		Future Perspectives
		References
	8 Types of Microorganisms for Biodegradation
		Introduction
		Polymer-Degrading Microorganisms
		Pesticide-Degrading Microorganisms
		Mechanisms of Biodegradation
			Biodeterioration
			Microbial Biofilm Formation
			Biofragmentation
			Mineralization
		Involvement of Microbial Enzymes in the Biodegradation Process
		Factors That Affect the Biodegradation Process
			Microbial Species and Their Metabolic Activities
			Substrate Characteristics
			Environmental Factors
		Conclusion
		Future Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
	9 Role of Microorganisms in Biodegradation of Pollutants
		Introduction
		Bacterial Biodegradations
		Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacterial Degradation
			Microbial Role in Nitrogen Fixation
			Microbial Role in Phosphorous Solubilization
			Growth Hormone Regulation by Plant
			Protection from Phytopathogenic Microorganisms
		Microfungi and Mycorrhiza Biodegradation
			Filamentous Fungi
			Yeast Biodegradation
		Role of Algae and Protozoa in the Biodegradation Process
		Factors Affecting Microbial Degradation
			Biological Factors
			Environmental Factors
		Bioremediation and Biodegradation
		Degradation by Genetically Engineered Microorganisms
			Role of GEM in Bioremediation
				GEM Application in Biodegradation of Dye Pollutants
				GEM in Industrial Food Enzyme Production
				Other Applications
		Microbial Enzymes in Biodegradation
			Oxidoreductases
			Hydrolases
		Conclusions
		Future Perspective
		References
Part II: Polymer Biodegradation
	10 Biodegradable Polymers
		Introduction
		Biodegradable Polymers Derived from Petroleum Resources
		Biodegradable Polymers Derived from Natural Resources
		Factors Affecting the Biodegradation
		Conclusions
		Future Prospective
		Cross-References
		References
	11 Biodegradable Polymer Challenges
		Introduction
		Biodegradable Materials: Challenges and Opportunities
		Biodegradable Polymers
			Polyhydroxyalkanoates
			Polybutylene Succinate
			Polylactic Acid/Polylactide
			Polycarbonates
		Potential Challenges and Mitigation
			Modification in Synthetic Strategies for Biodegradable Polymers
			Banning of Problematic Conventional Plastics
			Implementation of Extended Producer Responsibility
			Implementation of Deposit Refund Schemes
		Conclusions
		Future Prospectives
		References
	12 Sustainable Biopolymers
		Introduction
		Biodegradable Polymers
		Biofibers and Their Properties
			Plant-Based Biofibers
				Lignocellulose
				Cellulose
				Cellulose Nanocrystallites
			Animal-Based Biofibers
		Biopolymers for Tissue Engineering
			Chitin/Chitosan
			Collagen
			Hyaluronic Acid
			Elastin
			Polylactic Acid, Polyglycolic Acid, and Their Copolymers
			Poly(ε-caprolactone)
			Poly(orthoesters)
			Polyphosphazene
			Polydioxanone
		Durability of Biocomposite Polymers
		Conclusion
		Future Prospective
		Cross-References
		References
	13 Biocompatibility of Nanomaterials Reinforced Polymer-Based Nanocomposites
		Introduction
		Synthesis and Fabrication Methods of Polymer Nanocomposites
		Preparation Methods of Polymer Nanocomposites
			Intercalation Methods
			Melt Intercalation Method
			In Situ Polymerization Method
			Sol-Gel Method
			Direct Mixing of Polymer and Nanofillers
			Melt Compounding
			Solvent Method
		Polymer Nanocomposite Properties
			Electrical and Dynamic Mechanical Properties
			Thermal Stability
			Other Properties of Polymer-Based Nanocomposites
		Polymer-Nanocomposite Characterization
		Biocompatibility and Non-toxicity
		Biodegradable Polymers
		Biodegradation by Microorganisms
			Biodeterioration
				Methods of the Biodeterioration Process
					Physical
					Chemicals
					Enzymes
				Assessment of Biodeterioration
			Bio-fragmentation
				Assessment of Bio-fragmentation
			Assimilation
		Biodegradation by Body Fluids
		Factors Affecting Decomposition Rate of Biopolymeric Substance
		Chemical and Enzymatic Oxidations
			Enzymatic Hydrolysis
			Enzymatic Hydrolysis Mechanism
			Examples of Enzymatic Hydrolysis
		Mechanism of the Biodegradation Process
		Examples of Polymer-Nanocomposites Biodegradation
			Biodegradation of Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate)/Organophilic Montmorillonite Nanocomposite
			Biodegradation of Polylactic Acid Accompanied by Nanocomposites
			Biodegradation of Poly(ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites
			Biodegradation of Graphene Oxide-Bio-chitosan Nanocomposite
			Aliphatic Polyesters Biotic and Abiotic Degradation
			Degradation of Poly(hydroxybutyrate) and Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate)
			Biodegradation Products
		Applications of Polymers Nanocomposites
			Wound Dressing
			Drug Delivery
			Bone Tissue Engineering
			Chitosan-Based Nanohydroxyapatite Composite
		Other Applications
		Applicability and Safety of Polymer-Nanocomposites
		Conclusions
		Future Perspectives
		References
	14 Electrically Conducting Smart Biodegradable Polymers and Their Applications
		Introduction
			Biomaterials
			Conducting Polymers
		Synthesis of Conductive Polymers
			Chemical Methods
			Electrochemical Methods
			Photochemical Polymerization
			Metathesis Methods
			Concentrated Emulsion Method
			Solid-State Methods
			Plasma Polymerization
			Pyrolysis Method
		Biodegradable Conducting Polymers
			Synthesis of Biodegradable Conducting Polymers
			Types of Biodegradable Conducting Polymers
				Block Polymer
				Graft Polymers
				Polymeric Composites
				Polymer Hydrogels
		Applications of Biodegradable Conducting Polymers
			Electronic Devices, Sensors, and Actuators
				Polylactide
				Poly(vinyl alcohol)
				Polyvinylpyrrolidone
				Cellulose
			Electrochromic Applications
			Water and Wastewater Treatment
			Energy Conservation and Storage
			Biomedical Applications
				Tissue Engineering for Skin
				Tissue Engineering for Heart
				Tissue Engineering for Nerve
				Tissue Engineering for Skeletal Muscles
				Tissue Engineering for Bone
				Tissue Engineering for Cancer Treatment
		Conclusion
		Future Prospective
		References
	15 Biodegradable Polysaccharides Nanocomposites
		Introduction
		Polymer Nanocomposites and Their Chemistry
			The Interface´s Role
			Polymer Nanocomposites as Matrices for Biomolecules
			Polymer Nanocomposites: Methods of Preparation
				Preparation from Solution
				Preparation by Melt Mixing
				Preparation via In Situ Polymerization
				In Situ Synthesis Nanoparticle Preparation
				Preparation by Inorganic Synthesis and In Situ Polymerization
			High Barrier Characteristics of Polymer Nanocomposites
		Polymer Nanocomposites of Polysaccharides
			Polysaccharides from Lignocellulose Plants and Woods Sources
				Cellulose Ethers
				Cellulose Esters
				Cellulose Micro (Nano) Fibrillated Structures
				Hemicelluloses
		Starch
		Marine Biomass Polysaccharides
			Chitosan and Chitosan Derivatives
			Alginates
			Semolina with Embedded Nanokaolin
			Cellulose
				Probiotic Cellulose Antibacterial Activity
		Polymers Biodegradability After the Formation of Nanocomposite/Composite
			Chitosan
			Starch and Thermoplastic Starch
				Thermoplastic Starch with Silver Nanoparticles
				Thermoplastic Starch with Talc Nanoparticles
		Biodegradable Composites with Nanosized Fillers
			Lignocellulosic Fibers
			Cellulose Nano-crystallites Are a Type of Crystal (Bacterial Cellulose)
			Cellulose That Has Been Regenerated
			Other Varieties of Bio Fibers Are Available
		Migration of Various Nanoparticles into Diverse Foodstuffs
		Conclusion
		Future Perspectives
		References
	16 Biodegradable Polymers for Industrial Applications
		Introductions
		Biodegradable Natural Polymers
			Technological Applications of Biodegradable Natural Polymers
				Chitin/Chitosan
				Sodium Alginates
				Cellulose
		Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers
			Technological Applications of Biodegradable Synthetic Polymers
				Polyvinyl Alcohol
				Polyglycolic Acid
				Polylactic Acid
				Poly(lactide-co-glycolide)
		Conclusion
		Future Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
Part III: Plastic Biodegradation
	17 Biodegradable Plastics as a Solution to the Challenging Situation of Plastic Waste Management
		Introduction
		Properties of Biodegradable Plastics
		Synthesis of Biodegradable Plastics
		Process of Biodegradation
		Types of Biodegradable Plastics
		Applications of Biodegradable Plastics
		Conclusion
		Future Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
	18 Biodegradable Plastics Based on Algal Polymers: Recent Advances and Applications
		Introduction
		Alginate Bioplastics
		Carrageenan Bioplastics
		Agar Bioplastics
		Ulvan-Based Bioplastics
		Porphyran-Based Bioplastics
		Fucoidan-Based Bioplastics
		Polyhydroxyalkanoates Bioplastics
		Bioplastics Based on Algal Proteins
		Bioplastics Based on Algal Cellulose
		Bioplastics Based on Algal Starch
		Bioplastics Based on Algal Extracellular Polysaccharides
		Applications
			Food Packaging and Coatings
			Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Applications
			Water Purification and Desalination
			Mulching Films
			Use of Bioplastics in Electronic Devices
				Electromagnetic Interference Shielding
				Electricity Conduction
				Batteries
				Fuel Cells
			Fire-Retardant Bioplastics
			Other Applications
		Conclusion
		Future Perspectives
		References
	19 Emerging and Advanced Technologies in Biodegradable Plastics for Sustainability
		Introduction
			Current Issues Regarding Conventional Plastics
			Waste Management Options for Bioplastics
			Structure, Synthesis, and Properties of Biodegradable Polymers
				Starch Plastics
				Cellulose
				Soybeans
				Polylactic Acid
			Biodegradable Plastics Versus Conventional Plastics
			Biodegradation Mechanisms of Plastics
			Aerobic and Anaerobic Biodegradation
		Emerging and Advanced Technologies in Biodegradable Plastic Research
		Future Direction, Challenges, and Role in the Sustainable Development of Biodegradable Plastics
			Green Economy and Principles for Sustainable Biomaterials
			Sustainable Design for Product Development
		Conclusions
		Future Prospective
		References
			Uncategorized References
	20 Plastics Biodegradation and Biofragmentation
		Introduction
		Biodegradable Plastics and Bio-Based Plastics
		Biodegradation of Plastics
			Degradable Plastic
			Compostable Plastic
			Biodegradable Plastic
		Biodiversity and Occurrence of Polymer-Degrading Microorganisms
		The Background Chemistry of Bioplastic Biodegradation
		Factors Affecting the Biodegradability of Plastics
			The Physical Properties of the Polymer
			The Chemical Properties of the Polymer
			The Polymer Additives
				Enzyme Characteristics
				Exposure Conditions
		Methodology for Testing Plastic Biodegradability
		Variation in Biodegradability Tests
		The Laboratory Conditions Versus the Unmanaged Ecosystem
		Stages of Biodegradation
			Biodeterioration
				Abiotic Deterioration
				Biotic Deterioration
			Biofragmentation
			Microbial Assimilation and Mineralization
		Waste Management Options for Bioplastic
			Recycling
			Energy Recovery by Incineration
			Landfill
			Treatment for Biological Waste (Anaerobic Digestion or Composting)
		Advantages and Disadvantages of Bioplastics
			Advantages
			Disadvantages
		Conclusion
		Future Perspective
		References
Part IV: Other Materials Biodegradation
	21 Biodegradable Inorganic Nanocomposites
		Introduction
		Bionanocomposites from Green Resources
			Classification of Biodegradable Inorganic Nanocomposites
				Nanofillers Particles
				Carbon Nanostructures
				Nano-hydroxyapatite
				Nanocellulose Fibres
			Enhanced Properties
				Tunable Biodegradability
				Antibacterial Activity
				Mechanical Properties
				Thermal Properties
		Synthesis of Biodegradable Inorganic Nanocomposites
			Wet Process
			Dry Process
		Potential Biomedical Applications
			Scaffold Material for Bone
			Stem Cells
			Bionanocomposites Interaction with Biological Entities
		Conclusions
		Future Prospective
		References
	22 Biodegradation of Carbon Nanotubes
		Introduction
		Classification of Carbon Nanotubes
			Carbon Nanotubes Structures and Morphology
				Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes
				Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes
		Properties of Carbon Nanotubes
			Chemical Properties
			Physical Properties
				Atomic Structure
				Thickness
				Length
				Specific Surface Area
				Bulk Density
				Thermal and Optical Properties
				Electrical Characteristics
		Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes
			Arc Discharge
			Laser Ablation
			Chemical Vapor Deposition
		Applications of Carbon Nanotubes
			Biomedical Field
			Nanoelectronics
			Membranes Filtration and Adsorption
		Environmental Impact of Carbon Nanotubes
		Importance of Carbon Nanotubes Degradation
		Methods of Carbon Nanotubes Degradation
			Thermal Degradation
			Biodegradation
				Microbial Degradation
				Enzymatic Degradation
		Economic Cost of Carbon Nanotubes Degradation
		Conclusions
		Future Perspectives
		References
	23 Biodegradation, Biosynthesis, Isolation, and Applications of Chitin and Chitosan
		Introduction
		General Characteristics of Chitin and Chitosan
			Chemical Structure and Properties
		Chitin Biosynthesis
		Isolation of Chitin at Industrial Level
		Chitin Degradation
		Significance of Chitin and Chitosan in Biomedical and Nanotechnology
		Tissue Engineering
		Wound Healing
		Cancer Diagnosis
		Chitin- and Chitosan-Based Dressings
		Chitin- and Chitosan-Based Applications in Ophthalmology
		Antibacterial Properties
		Antithrombogenic and Hemostatic Materials
		Antiaging Cosmetics
		Antitumor Activity
		Vaccine Adjuvant
		Decomposition, Regeneration, Repair, and Damage of Cuticle
		Conclusion
		Future Prospects
		References
Part V: Environmental Impacts of Biodegradation
	24 Environmental Impact of Biodegradation
		Introduction
		Environmental Impacts of Biodegradation on Soil Fertility
			Biodegradation of Plastics/Bioplastics
			Biodegradation of Herbicides, Pesticides, and Insecticides
			Biodegradation Agricultural Crop Residues
			Biodegradation of Oil
		Environmental Impacts of Biodegradation on Air Purification
		Environmental Impacts of Biodegradation on Water Purification
		Biodegradation and Improvement of Productivity of Plants and Animals
		Biodegradation: Ecosystem Balancing Viewpoint
		Biodegradation and Facilities of Human Life
		Conclusions
		Future Prospective
		References
	25 Biodegradable Nanocelluloses for Removal of Hazardous Organic Pollutants from Wastewater
		Introduction
		Basic Types of Biodegradable Nanocelluloses
		Overview of Synthesis Methods
			Mechanical Methods
			Chemical Methods
			Enzymatic Method
		Characterization of Biodegradable Nanocelluloses
		Properties of Biodegradable Nanocelluloses
			High Specific Surface Area and Surface Tension
			High Aspect Ratio
			High Chemical Resistance
			Good Mechanical Strength and Rigidity
			Surface Functionalization
		Biodegradable Nanocelluloses for the Removal of Organic Pollutants
			Removal of Dye Pollutants
			Organic Compounds
			Pesticides
			Fertilizers
			Drugs
		Conclusions
		Future Perspective
		References
	26 Biodegradation of Azo Dye Pollutants Using Microorganisms
		Introduction
		Importance of Safe Water and Wastewater Treatment
		Types of Water Pollutants
			Microbial Pollutants
			Inorganic Pollutants
			Organic Pollutants
				Phenols
				Pesticides
				Food Processing Waste
				Pharmaceuticals
				Cosmetics
				Oils
				Detergents and Surfactants
				Textile Dyes and Azo Dyes
		Biodegradation of Textile Manufacturing-Generated Dyes Using Microorganisms
			Azo Dye Biodegradation Using Bacteria
			Azo Dye Biodegradation Using Fungi
			Azo Dye Biodegradation Using Yeast
			Algae Use for Azo Dye Biodegradation
		Conclusions
		Future Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
	27 Impacts of Biodegradable Plastic on the Environment
		Introduction
		Types of Biodegradable Plastics
			Biobased Biodegradable Plastics
				Polylactic Acid or Polylactide
				Polyhydroxy Alkanoates
				Cellulose-Based Plastics (Polysaccharide Derivatives)
				Protein-Based Plastics (Poly Amino Acid)
			Fossil-Based Biodegradable Plastics
				Poly Butyrate Adipate Terephthalate
				Polycaprolactone
				Polybutylene Succinate
				Polyvinyl Alcohol
		Production of Biodegradable Plastic
			Biodegradable Plastics Produced with Renewable Raw Materials
			Biodegradable Plastics Produced with Microorganisms
				Polyhydroxy Alkanoates
				Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate Synthesis
				Cyanobacterial Systems and Their Capability of Producing PHB
				Detection and Analysis of Poly-β-hydroxybutyrate
				Biodegradability and Biological Considerations of Poly-β-hydroxybutyrate
		Factors that Impact the Plastics´ Biodegradability
		Impacts of Biodegradable Plastic Mulches on Soil Health
			Plastic Films for Agricultural Mulching
			Assessment of the Ecotoxicity of Biodegradable Plastic Mulches
			Biodegradability of Plastics in the Environment
			Waste Management Options of Biodegradable Plastics
		Advantages and Disadvantages of Biodegradable Plastics
			Advantages of Using Biodegradable Plastics
				Reduction of the Amount of Waste Produced
				Biodegradable Plastics Are Simple to Recycle
				Less Energy Consumption
				Biodegradable Plastic Products Are Disassembled by Bacteria that Occur Naturally
				Lower Petroleum Consumption
				Compostability
				Biodegradable Plastic Products Can Mix with Our Traditional Products
			Disadvantages of Biodegradable Plastics
				Biodegradable Plastics Contain Metals
				Biodegradable Plastics Produce Methane in Landfills
				Need for Costly Equipment for Both Processing and Recycling
				Biodegradable Products Come at a Higher Cost
				Biodegradable Plastics Do Not Solve Ocean Pollution Problems
		Food Packaging Applications
		Conclusion
		Future Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
	28 Genetically Engineered Bacteria Used in Bioremediation Applications
		Introduction
			Recombinant DNA Techniques for the Development of Bioremediation
			Genome-Editing Tools for the Development of Bioremediation
		Bioremediation of Heavy Metals by Genetically Engineering Bacteria
			Nickel
			Mercury
			Chromium
		Bioremediation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons by Genetically Engineering Bacteria
		Bioremediation of Pesticides by Genetically Engineering Bacteria
			Metagenomics and Bioremediation
			Transcriptomics in Bioremediation
			Proteomics in Bioremediation
		Conclusion
		Future Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
	29 Biowaste Materials for Advanced Biodegradable Packaging Technology
		Introduction
		Food Packaging Materials
		Environmental Impact of Non-biodegradable Materials
		Environmental Impact of Biowastes
		The Processes of Converting the Biowastes into Valuable Products
			Thermochemical Conversion
			Biochemical Conversion
		The Biowaste-Based Materials for Biodegradable Food Packaging
			Biopolymers for Food Packaging
			Natural Biomass Sources for Food Packaging
		Development and Enhancement Techniques for Biodegradable Films and Coatings
		Conclusions
		Future Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
	30 Biodegradation of Pollutants
		Introduction
		Definition of Biodegradation
		Historical and Ecological Context
		Types of Bioremediation
			In Situ Bioremediation
			Ex Situ Bioremediation
			Phytoremediation
				Phytoaccumulation
				Phytofiltration
				Phytostabilization
				Phytovolatilization
				Phytodegradation
			Microorganism Remediation
		Microbial Biodegradation
		Biodegradable Contaminants
		Role of Microorganisms in Biodegradation of Pollutants
		Bacterial Biodegradation
			Aerobic Degradation
			Anaerobic Biodegradation
		Microfungi and Mycorrhiza Degradation
			Yeast Degradation
			Fungi Degradation
			Algae and Protozoa Degradation
		Conclusion
		Future Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
Part VI: Medical and Health Impacts of Biodegradation
	31 Biodegradable Nanocomposite as Advanced Bone Tissue Scaffold
		Introduction
			Bone Tissue Engineering
			Structure and Properties of Bone
				Bone Architecture
				Bone Cells
			Bone Defects and Healing Mechanism
			Scaffolds
				Properties of an Ideal Scaffold
					Biocompatibility
					Biodegradability
					Bioactivity
					Scaffold Micro-architecture
					Mechanical Properties
				Scaffold Fabrication Methods
					Conventional Scaffold Fabrication Techniques
						Solvent Casting/Particulate Leaching
						Gas Foaming
						Freeze-Drying
						Phase Separation
						Electrospinning
					3D Printing Techniques
						Stereolithography
						Fused Deposition Modeling
						Selective Laser Sintering
					3D Bioprinting
						Inkjet Bioprinting
						Laser-Assisted Bioprinting
						Micro-Valve Bioprinting
						Extrusion Bioprinters
					4D Printing
		Biodegradable Materials for Bone Scaffolds
			Metals
				Biodegradable Magnesium Composite Scaffolds
				Biodegradable Iron Composite Scaffolds
				Biodegradable Zinc Composite Scaffolds
				Biodegradable Strontium Composite Scaffolds
			Bioceramics
				Hydroxyapatite
				Tri-calcium Phosphate
				Di-calcium Phosphate
				Calcium Sulfate and Silicate-Based Bioceramics
			Bioactive Glasses
			Polymers
				Natural Polymers
					Collagen
					Chitosan
					Hyaluronic Acid
					Fibrin
					Silk
				Synthetic Polymer
					Polycaprolactone
					Polylactic Acid
					Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid)/PLGA
		Biodegradable Nanocomposites Scaffolds Applied in Bone Tissue Engineering
			Biodegradable Nanostructured Calcium-Phosphate Based Composites
			Nanostructured Bioglasse-Based Bone Scaffolds
				Bioglass-Metal Nano-composite Scaffolds
				Bioglass-Bioceramics Nanocomposite Scaffolds
				Bioglass-Polymers Nanocomposite Scaffolds
			Hydrogels
		Piezoelectric Polymer-Ceramic Composites
			Inorganic Piezoelectric Materials: Piezoelectric Ceramics
			Piezoelectric Polymers
			Piezoelectric Ceramic-Polymer Composite Materials
		Electric Conductive Nanocomposites
		Magnetically Responsive Composites
		3D Printed and Biomorphic Ceramics
			Scaffolds Synthesized by 3D Printing Systems
			Scaffolds Synthesized Through Biomorphic Transformation
		Composite Nanostructured Delivery Systems
		Direct Incorporation of Nanodelivery Systems in 3D Constructs
			Surface Modification and Cross-Linking of Nano-delivery Systems to 3D Constructs
			Multifunctional Nanofiber Scaffolds as Drug Delivery Systems
			Intelligent Materials and Modular Fabrication
			Barriers to Clinical Translation
			Scientific and Technological Challenges
			Translational Challenges
			Ethical Issues
		Conclusions
		Future Prospective
		Cross-References
		References
	32 Biodegradable Polymers for Cardiac Tissue Engineering
		Introduction
		Cardiac Tissue Engineering
		Types of Biodegradable Polymers in Cardiac Tissue Engineering
			Silk Fibroin
			Collagen
			Chitosan
			Alginate
			Fibrin
			Matrigel
			Hyaluronic Acid
		Properties of Polymers
		Properties of Scaffolds in Cardiac Tissue Engineering
			Bioactivity
			Biocompatibility
			Biodegradability
			Porosity
			Morphology
			Mechanical
		Fabrication Methods of Biodegradable Polymers
			Melting-Based Technique
			Solvent-Based Technique
				Solvent Casting or Particle Leaching
				Freeze-Drying
				Thermal-Induced Phase Separation
				Electrospinning
			Gas Foaming Technique
			Rapid Prototyping Technique
		Conclusion
		Future Perspective
		References
	33 Biodegradable Polymers in Biomedical Applications: A Focus on Skin and Bone Regeneration
		Introduction
		Scaffold Main Features for Biomedical Applications
		Synthesis of Natural Biodegradable Polymers
			Collagens
			Chitosan
			Fibrin
			Hyaluronic Acid
			Alginate
			Starch
			Gelatin
		Biomedical Applications of Natural Biodegradable Polymers
			Skin Regeneration and Wound Healing
			Bone Regeneration
			Implants
		Conclusion
		Future Perspectives
		References
	34 Hybrid Biodegradable Polymeric Scaffolds for Cardiac Tissue Engineering
		Introduction
		Current Regeneration Strategies for Cardiac Tissue Engineering
			Scaffolds and Cells
			Engineering of the Heart Tissue
			Scaffoldless Cell Sheet/Cell Patch Technology
			Biological Cell Assembly
			Decellularization of the Cardiac Matrix
			Neovascularization Strategy
				In Vitro Vascularization
				In Vivo Vascularization
		Mechanism of Degradation
			Degradation of Natural Biodegradation Polymers
			Degradation of Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers
		Biodegradation Polymers Employed for Cardiac Tissue Engineering
			Natural Biodegradation Polymers
				Proteins
					Collagen
					Gelatin
					Fibrin
					Matrigel
				Polysaccharides
					Chitin/Chitosan
					Alginate
			Synthetic Biodegradation Polymers
				Poly(Lactic Acid) (PLA)
				Poly(Glycolic Acid) (PGA)
				Poly(Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid) (PLGA)
				Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)
				Polycaprolactone (PCL)
				Polyurethanes (PUs)
			Natural/Synthetic Hybrid Biodegradation Polymers
				Poly(Lactic Acid)/Chitosan
				Gelatin/Polycaprolactone/Graphene
				Titanium Dioxide-Polyethylene Glycol/Chitosan
				Collagen/Carbon Nanotubes
				Collagen/Gold Nanoparticles
				Collagen/Fibrin
				Gelatin/Hyaluronic Acid
				Fibrin/Polyethylene Glycol
		Conclusion
		Future Perspectives
		References
	35 Biodegradation Method of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products
		Introduction
		Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products
		Wastewater Treatment Plants and Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products
		Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products and Human Interactions
		Biological Transformation of PPCPs
		The Parent Compounds
		Soil
		Soil Aquifer Treatment and Activated Sludge Treatment
		Bacterial Species Included in MFC A/O Systems Biodegradation of PPCPs and Aromatic Compounds
		Biodegradability of Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products
		Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products Biodegradability Categories
		Factors Affecting Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products Biodegradability
		Methods to Analysis Biodegradability
			Ready Biodegradability: OECD 301
				DOC Die-Away Test (ISO 7827, OECD 301 a)
				CO2 Evolution Test (ISO 9439, OECD 301 B) - Modified Sturm Test
				MITI (OECD 301 c)
				Closed Bottle Test (CBT) (ISO 10707, OECD 301 D)
				Modified OECD Screening (OECD 301 E)
				Manometric Respirometry Test (ISO 9408, OECD 301 F)
				Combined CO2/DOC Test
			Inherent Biodegradability: OECD 302
				Semi-Continuous Activated Sludge Test (SCAS): OECD 302 a
				Zahn-Wellens/EMPA: OECD 302 B
				Modified Zahn-Wellens Test
			Automated Determination of Biodegradability
				Other Methods
		Metabolism
			Diclofenac
				Bacillus Subtilis and Brevibacillus Laterosporus
				Enterobacter Hormaechei D15
				Labrys Portucalensis F11
				Rhodococcus Ruber IEGM 346
			Ibuprofen
				Sphingomonas sp. Ibu-2 Strain
				Variovorax Ibu-1
				Bacillus Thuringiensis B1
			Carbamazepine
		Conclusion
		Future Perspectives
		References
	36 Biodegradable Materials from Natural Origin for Tissue Engineering and Stem Cells Technologies
		Introduction
		Bioprinting Technologies and Cell Sheet Tissue Engineering
			3D Bioprinting
			4D Bioprinting
			3D Engineered Cardiac Tissue Models
		Natural Polymers-Based Biocomposites: State of the Art, New Challenges, and Opportunities
			The Characteristics of Biodegradable Polymers
			Carboxymethyl Cellulose
			Preparation of CMC-Based Scaffolds for Use in Tissue Engineering
			Chitosan-Based Biomaterials in Tissue Engineering Applications
		Tissue Engineering Applications
			Cardiovascular Disease
				Cardiovascular Tissue Engineering
				Cardiac Tissue Engineering Products Advancing to the Clinic
				Biomaterial Scaffolds for Cardiac Tissue Engineering
				The Future of Cardiac Regeneration by Tissue Engineering Technologies
			Biomaterials and Nanomedicine for Bone Repair and Bone Regeneration Strategies
				Nanoparticle-Based Strategies
				Scaffold-Based Strategies
				Role of Growth Factors for Bone Regeneration
				Scaffolds for GF Delivery
			Biomaterial Scaffolds and Stem Cell for Skin Tissue Engineering in Wound Healing
			Combination Therapy: Biomaterials and Stem Cells in Wound Healing and Regeneration
		Conclusions
		Future Perspectives
		References
	37 Medical Waste Biodegradation
		Introduction
		The Environmental Impact of Medical Waste
		Current Technology to Treat Medical Waste
			Landfilling
			Incineration
		Alternative Ways to Solve the Medical Waste Issue
			The 3R Principle (Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle)
			Education
			Utilization of Biodegradable Materials
		Biodegradable Polymer for Face Shields and Face Masks
			Cellulose
			Polybutylene Succinate
			Polybutylene Adipate Terephthalate
			Polycaprolactone
		Biodegradable Materials for Face Masks
			Electrospun Encapsulated Polylactic Acid-Based Nanomembrane
			Gluten
			Chitosan
			Starch
		The Effectiveness of Biodegradable Face Masks, Face Shields, and Hand Gloves in Preventing Viruses, Bacteria, and Particulate ...
		Conclusions
		Future Perspectives
		References
	38 Biodegradable Mg Alloys for Orthopedic Implant Materials
		Introduction
		Properties of Mg and Biodegradable Mg Alloys
			Mg - Al alloys
			Mg - Zn alloys
			Mg - Ca alloys
			Mg - Zr alloys
			Mg - Sr alloys
			Mg - REEs alloys
		Surface Treatments of Biodegradable Mg Alloys
			Chemical Conversion
			Anodization
			Micro-Arc Oxidation (MAO)
			Physical Vapor Deposition
			Ion Implantation
			Electrochemical Deposition
		Conclusions
		Future Prospective
		References
Part VII: Foods and Agricultural Impacts of Biodegradation
	39 Biochar and Chicken Manure Compost
		Introduction
			Production of Biochar
				Pyrolysis
				Torrefaction
				Hydrothermal Carbonization
				Gasification
			Stability of Biochar
		Fresh Chicken Manure
			Environmental Issues
			Pharmaceutical Residues
			Harmful Microorganisms
			Inorganic and Organic Contaminants
		Chicken Manure Compost as Fertilizers
		Factors of Aerobic Composting
			Surrounding Temperature
			Carbon-to-Nitrogen Ratio
			Bulking Agent
			Oxygen Level
			Soil pH
			Moisture Content
			The Texture of Raw Materials
			Composting Duration
			Composting Agents
		Chicken Manure Composting Method
			Pile Composting
			Sheet Composting
		Effects of Biochar in Manure Compost
			Nutrient Supply
			Water-Holding Capacity
			Soil pH
			Soil Biological Process
		Biochar Mitigates Pesticides
		Biochar Mitigates Microorganisms
		Conclusion
		Future Perspectives
		References
	40 Biodegradation Versus Composting
		Introduction
		Composting Technique
			In-Vessel Composting
			Windrow Composting
			Vermicomposting
			Static Pile Composting
		Anaerobic Digestion
		Factors that Affect the Rate of Composting
			Temperature
			The Oxygen and pH Levels
			Moisture Content
		Composting Advantages
		Major Chemical Elements in Composting
			Nitrogen
			Phosphorus
			Potassium
		Microbes Used in Composting
		Composting and Biodegradation Challenges
		Conclusions
		Future Perspectives
		References
	41 Biodegradable Food Packaging Materials
		Introduction
		Biopolymers
			Polysaccharides-Based Biopolymers
				Starch
				Cellulose
			Protein-Based Biopolymers
			Polyesters/PHAs-Based Biopolymers
			Chemically Synthesized Biopolymers
				Polylactic Acid
				Polycaprolactone
		Characterization of Biofilms
		Fundamentals of Food Packaging
			Preparation Methodologies for Biofilms
				Casting Methodology
				Film Blowing Methodology
				Extrusion Methodology
			Properties Associated with the Biofilms
			Biodegradation
				Biodegradation Mechanism
				Biodegradation Tests
		Conclusion
		Future Perspectives
		References
	42 Ecological Sustainability of Biodegradable Materials for Food Healthy Storage
		Introduction
		Polymers-Based Food Packaging Materials
			Sustainable Polymers from Renewable Resources
			Biodegradable Polymers
		Types of Biodegradable Food Packaging Materials
			Natural Biopolymers
				Polysaccharides
					Cellulose
					Starch
					Chitin and Chitosan
				The Proteins
					Corn Zein
					Wheat Gluten
					Soy Protein
					Collagen and Gelatine
					Milk Protein
			Polymers from Biomonomers
				The Architecture of PLA
				Polymerization by Ring-Opening
				Condensation Polymerization
				Properties of Poly (Lactic Acid)
			Microorganisms´ Polymers
		Opportunities and Limits to the Use of Edible-Biodegradable Films in the Food Industry
		Biodegradability of the Polymers
		Advances in Biodegradable Food Packaging Materials
		Future Prospective
		Conclusion
		Cross-Reference
		References
	43 Vegetable Oil-Based Biodegradable Alkyd Materials for Eco-friendly Coating Applications
		Introduction
		Alkyd Resins
		Advanced Eco-friendly Alkyds Coatings Toward a Greener Environment
			Waterborne Alkyd Coatings
			Coatings Made of Hyperbranched Alkyds
		Advanced Hyperbranched Alkyd Nanocomposites
		Graphene-Based Alkyds
			Graphene-Based Coatings
			Graphene-Alkyd Nanocomposite Coatings
		Conclusions
		Future Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
Part VIII: Industrial and Technological Impacts of Biodegradation
	44 Biodegradation of Industrial Materials
		Introduction
		The Concept of Biodegradation
		Requisite of Biodegradation
		Biodegradation Mechanism
			Abiotic Biodegradation
			Biotic Biodegradation
			Aerobic Biodegradation
			Anaerobic Biodegradation
		Requirement for Biodegradation
		Factors Affecting Biodegradation
			Biological Factors
				Rates of Contaminant Degradation
				Extent of Contaminant Degradation
				Temperature
				Moisture
				pH
			Environmental Factors
				Adsorption and Absorption
				Contaminant Migration in Groundwater
			Bioavailability
			Soil Matric Potential
			Redox Potential
		Biodegradable Industrial Materials´ Potential
			Plastics
				Microbiological Plastic Degradation Mechanism
					Biodeterioration
					Biofragmentation
					Assimilation
					Mineralization
				Classification of Biodegradable Plastics
					Bio-Based Biodegradable Plastics
					Fossil-Based Biodegradable Plastics
			Bacterial Biodegradation and Bioconversion of Industrial Lignocellulosic Streams
			Packaging Materials Based on Biodegradable Polymers and Nanocomposite
			Ecological Isolation of Wastewater Polluted by Industrial Oil
			Biodegradation of Azo Dyes
			Biodegradation of Industrial Waste Streams
			Biodegradation of Composite Materials
		Current Scenario Regarding the Research on the Biodegradation of Industrial Materials
		Conclusions
		Future Prospects
		Cross-References
		References
	45 Biodegradable Textiles, Recycling, and Sustainability Achievement
		Introduction
		Plastic Pollution and Environmental Hazards
		Biodegradation Process
			Definitions of Biodegradation
			Biodegradation Conditions
				Aerobic Biodegradation
				Anaerobic Biodegradation
		Biodegradability of Fibers and Films in the Textile Field
			Wool
			Cotton
			Flax Fibers
			Hemp Fibers
			Jute Fibers
			Ramie Fibers
			Kenaf Fibers
			Sisal Fibers
			Abaca Fibers
			Lyocell Fibers
		Other Biodegradable and Sustainable Fibers
			Poly(Lactic Acid)
			Polyacrylonitrile
		Biodegradability of Cellulose Fibers in Textile Blends
		Biodegradable Nonwovens and Their Applications
		Biodegradable Fibers in Geotextiles
		Enzymatic Hydrolysis During Biodegradability
			The Mechanisms of Enzymatic Reactions on Cellulose Fibers
			The Mechanisms of Enzymatic Hydrolysis on Proteinic Fibers
		Evaluation of Textile Biodegradability
			Enzymatic Hydrolysis
			Weight Loss
			Observation of a Surface Change
			Changes in the Internal Structure
			Tensile Properties (Breaking Load)
			Textile Fibers and Fabrics Recycling Procedures
		Sustainability in the Textile and Clothing Field
		Conclusions
		Future Perspectives
		References
	46 Biodegradation of Crude Oil and Biodegradation of Surfactants
		Introduction
			Aerobic Biodegradation
			Anaerobic Biodegradation
		Crude Oil Biodegradation
			Overview
			Aerobic Degradation of Hydrocarbons
			Anaerobic Degradation of Hydrocarbons
		Surfactant Biodegradation
			Overview
			Primary and Ultimate Biodegradation of Surfactants
			Types and Biodegradation of Surfactants
				Anionic Surfactants
				Cationic Surfactants
				Non-ionic Surfactants
				Zwitterionic or Amphoteric Surfactants
				Biosurfactants
		Conclusion
		Future Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
	47 Biodegradation for Metal Extraction
		Introduction
			Biodegradable Chelating Agent
			Effective Use of Biodegradable Chelants Versus EDTA
		Biodegradable Aminopolycarboxylate
			Iminodisuccinic Acid
			Methylglycinediacetic Acid
			Ethylenediamine-N, N′-Disuccinic Acid
			Nitrilotriacetic Acid
			Tetrasodium Glutamate Diacetate
		Biodegradable Organic Acid
		Factors that Affect the Metal Extraction Efficiency
			pH Condition
			Concentration of Chelating Agent
		Will the Heavy Metal Pollution Remain Even though the Chelants Used Are Biodegradable?
			Phytoremediation
			Microbial Biosorption
			Challenges of Phytoremediation and Microbial Biosorption
			Recycling of Heavy Metals
		Conclusion
		Future Perspectives
		References
	48 Biodegradable Electrode Materials for Sustainable Supercapacitors as Future Energy Storage Devices
		Introduction
		Biodegradable Electrode Materials for Supercapacitor Applications
		Modification of Biodegradable Electrodes
		Compatible Electrolytes for Biodegradable Electrode Supercapacitors
		Biodegradable Nanocomposite Supercapacitor Electrodes
		Advantages and Disadvantages of Biodegradable Materials
		Conclusions
		Future Prospective
		References
	49 Biodegradable Inorganic Nanocomposites for Industrial Applications
		Introduction
		Aliphatic Polyester Nanoparticle Composites
			Polylactic Acid (PLA) Nanocomposites
			Poly(ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites
			Poly(p-dioxanone) Nanocomposites
			Poly(butylene Succinate) Nanocomposites
		Natural Resource-Based Nanocomposites
			Starch Nanocomposites
			Cellulose Nanocomposites
			Chitosan Nanocomposites
			Protein Nanocomposites
		Conclusions
		Further Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
	50 Surfactant Biodegradation
		Introduction
		Impact of Surfactants on the Environment
		Analysis of Surfactants in the Environment
		Types of Surfactant Biodegradations
			Anionic Surfactants
			Cationic Surfactants
			Non-ionic Surfactants
			Amphoteric Surfactants
			Biosurfactants
		Mechanism of Surfactant Biodegradation
			ω-Oxidation
			β-Oxidation
			Benzene Ring Oxidation
		Factors Influencing Surfactant Biodegradation
			Reaction Conditions
			Microorganisms
			Mixture Components
		Assessment of the Biodegradability of Surfactants
		Conclusions
		Future Prospects
		Cross-References
		References
	51 Insight into the Environmental Applications in the Biodegradation of Oil Industry Waste Materials
		Introduction
		Sources of Oil Industry Waste Materials
			Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
			Oil Spills
		Environmental Impact of Oil Industry
		Oil-Polluted Systems Treatment Using Microorganisms
			Microbial Degradation of Petroleum Hydrocarbon Contaminants
				Mechanism of Petroleum Hydrocarbon Degradation and Pathways
					Degrading Process of Alkane and Cycloalkane
					Degrading Process of Aromatic Hydrocarbon
					Degrading Process of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
				Specificity of Biodegradation
			Degradation of Hydrocarbons by Enzymes
			Uptake of Hydrocarbons by Biosurfactants
		Utilization of Petroleum Industry Wastes as Sustainable Building Materials
			Drilling Wastes
			Oily Sludge
		Conclusion
		Future Perspectives
		References
Index