Handbook of Autism Spectrum Disorder and the Law

Foreword: Autism and Law
Contents
1 An Introduction to Autism and the Autism Spectrum
	What Is Autism?
	Autism as a Diagnostic Concept
	How Does Autism Manifest Itself?
	How Is Autism Diagnosed?
	Diagnostic Complexities
	Cognitive Theories of Autism Spectrum Disorder
	Treatment Approaches
	Outcome
	Summary
	References
2 The Autism Diagnosis
	How ASD Is Diagnosed
		Developmental Course and Age of Diagnosis
	Diagnostic Process
		Differential Diagnosis
		Components of Evaluation
	Summary
	References
3 Expert Evidence about Autism Spectrum Disorder
	Introduction
	Expert Evidence
	Expert Evidence as to Impairment of the Capacity for Reasoning
	Expert Evidence about Impaired Capacity for Empathy
	Expert Evidence about the Consequences of a Conviction
	Expert Evidence about Alertness to Risks, Social and Sexual Cues
	Expert Evidence about Awareness of Consequences of Conduct
	Expert Evidence about the Consequences of Imprisonment
	Counter-Intuitive Expert Evidence
	A Court Warning about Post-conviction Autism Diagnoses
	Conclusions
	References
4 Neuroscience of Autism in the Legal Context
	Neuroscience of Autism
	Our Inherited Tools for Social Understanding and Social Survival
	Failure to “See” the Social World
	Autism: A “Social Learning Disorder”
	Without Social Perception and Intuitive Social Thinking, Social Norms and Taboos Are Often Not Evident to the Person with ASD
	Lacking in Social Intuition, Young Men with ASD Are Vulnerable to Unwitting Sexually Offensive Behaviors
	Without Social Intuition, the Individual with ASD May Not See the Implication of Social Scenes, in Life and in Photographs
	While Autism Makes Young Men Vulnerable to Unwittingly Transgressing Social Norms, Their Autism Renders Them Generally “Rule Bound” and Assiduous at Following the Social Rules They Are Told About
	Neuroimaging
	Executive Function and the Frontal Lobes
	Central Coherence and Sensory Perception
	Brain Regions and Findings Potentially Involved in Autism
	Total Brain Volume
	Cerebellum
	Amygdala
	Corpus Callosum
	Connectivity
	The Possible Usefulness of Neuroimaging in the Legal Context
	Functional Limitations
	Interpreting Neuroimaging in Court—The Group to Individual Conundrum
	Neuroimaging Out of Court
	Bibliography
5 Trauma in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder: An Empirically Informed Model of Assessment and Intervention to Address the Effects of Traumatic Events
	Trauma and Its Effects on Development
	Neurobiological Effects
	Cognitive Development
	Autism and Trauma
	Neurobiology
	Cognitive Development and Processes
	Emotion Regulation
	Behavioral Symptoms
	Assessment of Trauma in Children
	Assessment of Trauma in Children with ASD
	Treatment of Trauma in Children
	Cognitive Behavior Therapy
	Trauma-Focused CBT
	Treatment Modifications for Children with ASD
	Modified CBT to Teach Emotion Regulation
	Modified CBT to Treat Anxiety
	Trauma Treatment Model for Individuals with ASD
	Assessment
	Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA)
	Teach Emotion Regulation
	Teach Emotion Recognition
	Graduated Exposure
	Cognitive Restructuring
	Psycho-Education About Trauma and Trauma Responses
	Dosage Level and Between-Session Support
	Safety Plan
	Data Monitoring and Ongoing Evaluation of Outcomes
	Program for Generalization and Maintenance
	Behavior Support Plans and Behavioral Skills Training for Parents
	Case Study
	Implications
	Conclusion
	References
6 Legal Defense in Criminal Cases
	Introduction
	General Recommendations
		Understanding a Defendant’s Autism
		Anticipating and Managing Anxiety
		Sensory Sensitivities
	Criminal Investigation
		Criminal Investigation Highlighted Recommendations
	Arrest
		Arrest Highlighted Recommendations
	Pretrial
		Pretrial Highlighted Recommendations
	Trial
		Trial Highlighted Recommendations
	Post-Conviction
		Post-conviction Highlighted Recommendations
	Conclusions
	Future Directions
	References
7 Obtaining Testimony from Autistic People
	Background
		Language, Social Communication and Narrative Ability in ASD
		Memory in ASD
	Eyewitness Testimony in ASD—Evidence to Date
		Interview Techniques
		Suggestibility and Compliance
		Interview Format
		Intellectual Disability and Co-occurring Conditions
	Police Suspects
	At Court
	Stress, Sensory Sensitivities and Other Practical Issues
		Practical Recommendations
	Summary and Conclusion
	References
8 ASD and Unlawful Behaviour: Background
	Introduction
	ASD and Criminal Justice System: History of the Literature
	How Many People with ASD Engage in Unlawful Behaviour?
	What Is the Nature of the Vulnerability to Unlawful Behaviour in ASD?
	Considering the Diagnosis of Social Vulnerabilities in the Forensic and Prison Populations
	Considering the Limitations in the Research
	Conclusion
	References
9 Bullying & Autism and Related Disorders
	Definitions
	Risk Factors: Characteristics of Victims and Perpetrators
	Consequences of Bullying
	Cyberbullying
	Bullying in the Workplace
	Epidemiology and International Perspectives
	ASD and Bullying
	Intervention Programs
	Legal Aspects of Bullying
	Summary
	References
10 Cyber-Dependent Crime, Autism, and Autistic-Like Traits
	Cyber-Dependent Crime
	Autism and Cyber-Dependent Crime
		Is There a Relationship Between Autism and Crime?
		Is There a Relationship Between Autism and Cyber Dependency?
	Autistic-Like Traits
	Autistic-Like Traits and Cybercrime
	Future Work
	References
11 Violent Behavior in Autism and Asperger's Disorder
	Violent Behavior in Autism and Asperger's Disorder
		Case Studies
		Empirical Studies
		Factors Which May Increase the Risk of Offending Among Individuals with ASD
		Summary
	Single and Multiple Homicide in Autism and Asperger's Disorder
		ASD and Single Homicide
		ASD and Multiple Homicide
	Conclusion
		Recommended Resources
	References
12 Sexual Offending and ASD
	Problem Sexual Behavior
	Criminal Sexual Offending
	Sexual Offending Against Children
	ASD Characteristics and Risk of Offending
	Psychiatric Comorbidity
	Social-Communication and Social-Cognition
	Restricted Interests and Repetitive Behaviors
	Counterfeit Deviance
	Summary
	References
13 Defending Men with Autism Accused of Online Sexual Offenses
	General Considerations
		A Human Rights Issue
		Extraordinary Goals and Efforts Required
		Science not Sympathy
		A Note About “Wrongfulness”
	Statutory Framework for Online Child Sexual Exploitation Offenses
		Brief History of Thinking on Autism and Criminality
		Online Child Exploitation Offenses: Overview
		Child Pornography Law Overview
		Production of Child Pornography
		Solicitation
		Distribution and Transportation of Child Pornography
		Receipt of Child Pornography
		Possession of Child Pornography
		Aggravating Factors
		Mental Culpability
	Comparative View of Child Pornography Laws
		United States
		Canada
		England and Wales
		France
		Australia
	The Vulnerability of Those with Autism to Sexually Inappropriate Online Behavior
	Other Vulnerabilities of Autism
		Credulity and Gullibility
		Executive Functioning
		Online Addiction
		Bullying
		“Not Learning His Lesson”
		Inappropriate Affect
	Intelligence Is Not an Antidote to Social Learning Deficits
	ASD and Sexuality
	Advancing the Theory of “Defense”
		Developmentally Disabled Offenders Are Likely the Least Dangerous
		While Autism Can Make Young Men Vulnerable to Unwittingly Transgressing Social Norms, It Often Renders Them “Rule Bound” and Assiduous at Following the Social Rules About Which They Are Expressly Told
		Educating the Prosecutor and the Judge
		Meeting the Prosecution
	Child Pornography Issues
		The Path to Viewing Child Pornography
		What Are They Looking at?
		The Problem of Interpreting Social Scenes
	Social Media, Chatting, Sexting, Soliciting, Trolling, and the Internet Context
	Childhood Sexual Experimentation
	Competency Issues
	Lack of Criminal Responsibility
	The Role of Treatment in Advocacy
	Counterfeit Deviance
	Clinical Evaluations in Cases of Online Offending
	The Americans with Disabilities Act and Rehabilitation Act
	Sentencing
		A Human Rights Issue
		Disability Rights in the Sentencing Context
	Conclusion
	References
14 Stalking, Autism, and the Law
	Defining Stalking
	Risk Factors
	Risk Assessment
	Stalking Typologies: Intimacy Seeking and Incompetent Suitor
	G.C.: An Incompetent Suitor Case Study
	Overview of Basic Elements of Stalking Laws
		Conduct
		Mens Rea
		Victim’s Subjective Fear
	Considerations Regarding Defendant Testimony
	Sentencing
	Parole
	Probation and Parole Violations
	Conclusion
	References
15 The Right to Special Education
	Introduction
	Child Find and Referral for Special Education
	Consent
	Evaluation
	Reevaluation
	Eligibility
	The Individualized Education Program
		Related Services
		Least Restrictive Environment/Continuum of Placements
		Annual Review
	A Free and Appropriate Public Education
	Procedural Safeguards
		Mediation
		Resolution Session
		Due Process
		Burden of Proof
		Appeal and Appropriate Relief
		Attorneys’ Fees
	Student Discipline
	Conclusion
	References
16 Navigating the Transition to Adulthood—Preparing for Life Under the U.S. Legislative Model
	How Telehealth Communication Technology Can Support Transition
	References
17 Legal Issues and Academic Accommodations in Higher Education
	Accommodating Students with Autism
		Unreasonable Accommodations
		Conduct and Behavior
	Title IX
	Disability Laws
	Title IX
	Title IX and the Student with Autism
	Code of Conduct and Investigations
	Disclosure and Confidentiality
		The Legal Transition from High School
		Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (http://www.hhs.gov/ocr/504.pdf)
		The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) www.ada.gov
	University Rights and Responsibilities
	Student Rights and Responsibilities
	Conclusion
	Resources
18 Autism Spectrum Disorder and the Workplace
	Introduction
	Individuals with ASPD in the Workplace
	The Americans with Disabilities Act
		Defining Disability
		Qualified to Perform the Essential Functions of the Job
		Defining Reasonable Accommodations
		Hiring Tests
	Recent Employer Initiatives
	Conclusion
	References
19 Laws Affecting the Health, Security, Autonomy, and Well-Being of People with ASD
	Introduction
	Health Care
		Medicaid
		Affordable Care Act
		State Insurance Mandates for Treatment of ASD
		Employment Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA)
		Mental Health Parity and Addiction Equity Act of 2008 (MHPAEA)
		Health Insurance Coverage Provided to Active-Duty Military, Veterans, and Their Families 
	Public Benefits, Services, and Supports
		Medicaid Long-Term Services and Supports Delivered in Institutional Settings
		Social Security Benefits: SSI and SSDI
		Protection & Advocacy Services
	Custody, Visitation, and Child Support
	Economic Security and Financial Planning
		ABLE Accounts
		Special Needs Trusts
		Cafeteria Plans
	Legal Decision-Making Capacity
		Guardianship/Conservatorship
		The Social Security Administration’s Representative Payee Program
	Workforce Readiness and Transition to Adulthood
		Vocational Rehabilitation Agencies
		Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act
		State Laws Designed to Ease Transition to Adulthood
	Conclusion
	References
20 Clinicians as Advocacy Allies for People with ASD
	Introduction
	Thinking Beyond the Medical Model
	Supporting Advocacy Efforts in Clinical Settings
	Legal Advocacy Challenges in Adjudicatory Hearings and Appeals
	How Clinicians Can Support Advocacy in Adjudicatory Hearings and Appeals
		Sympathetically Acknowledge the Magnitude of the Advocacy Challenge Facing the Patient/Client and Their Family, Express a Desire to Help, and Set Clear Expectations Upfront
		Refer the Patient/Client and Their Family to Local Advocacy Resources
		Understand the “Clinical-Legal” Mindset
		Ground All Supporting Documentation or Testimony in Clinical-Legal Reasoning
	Conclusion
	Additional Resources
		Perspectives on Neurodiversity/Autism Rights Movement
		Resources on the Use of Supported Decision-Making (SDM) in Health Care Settings
		Resources for Medical Providers on Documenting Disability for Patients with ASD
		Legal Representation and Resources for Individuals with ASD, Family Members, and Allies
		Self-Advocacy Organizations Run by and for Individuals with ASD
	References
21 Psychological Assessment of Autism Spectrum Disorder and the Law
	Screening, Identification, and the Comprehensive Evaluation of Autism Spectrum Disorders
		General Principles for Testing in ASD
		Malingering
		Establishment of the Disability
		Comprehensive Evaluation of an ASD for Establishing the Disability and Obtaining Educational Services
	Assessment of ASD for Special Education Services
	Assessment of an ASD, and Obtaining Americans with Disability Act Accommodations
	Assessment of ASD, Mental Health Law, and Eligibility for Adult Services
	ASD and Forensic Evaluations for Court
	References
22 Violence Risk Assessment in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
	Violence Risk Assessment in Typical Population
	Violence Risk Assessment in ASD
	Specific Risk Factors: Comorbid Psychiatric Conditions
	Specific Risk Factors: Social-Cognitive Deficits
	Specific Risk Factors: Social Exclusion
	Specific Risk Factors: Executive Functioning Deficits
	Specific Risk Factors: Circumscribed Interests, Routines, Rituals
	Specific Risk Factors: Sensory Issues
	Assessment of Risk Factors
	Conclusions
	References
23 Autism and Operational Policing
	Review and Analysis of the Literature on First Responder Training in Autism
		The Situation in the USA
		Recommendations for Practice in the Criminal Justice System
	Audiovisual Training for Autism
	Information and Advice for First Responders to an Autistic Person
		Sensory Needs
		Behaviour and Anxiety
		What Can First Responders Do?
		Predictability
		Assumption of Prior Knowledge
		Low Arousal
		Interviews
	Autism and High-Risk Law Enforcement Contacts
		Less Independent Persons
		Suspicious Persons
		Escapism and Vulnerable Missing Persons
		Mandatory Reporting
		Disclosure
		Person-Specific Information.
		Sharing Information with Police and Public Safety
	Drowning Deaths and Autistic Children in the USA versus the UK
	Conclusion: The Autism Imperative for the Police Service and Academic Researchers
	References
24 Preventing Criminal Sexual Behavior
	Introduction
	Sexuality and Relationship Education Programs
	Sexuality and Relationship Educations Programs for ASD
	A Need for Updated Curricula
	ASD-Specific Considerations for Adaptations
	Potential Areas of Focus
		Targeted Skill Development
		Need for Prosocial Examples
		Treatment
		Resources for Women
		SRE Adaptations for Other Populations
	Measurement of Efficacy
	Consequences of Lack of Treatment
	Gaps
	Where to Begin
	Conclusions and Next Steps
	What Can I Do?
	Resources to Explore
25 Violence Prevention
	Introduction
	Theoretical-Driven Violence Prevention
	The Relevance of Theories of Violence to ASD
	Violence Prevention Initiatives
	Violence Prevention in ASD
	Mass Violence
	Conclusions
	References
26 Service Provision in Forensic Settings
	Introduction
	What Is the Prevalence of Individuals with an ASD in Forensic Settings?
	How Individuals with an ASD Differ from Other Groups Detained in Forensic Settings?
	Views of Individuals with ASD Held by Staff Working in Secure Forensic Settings
	What Are the Experiences of Individuals with an ASD Within Secure Settings?
	Interventions Available Within Forensic Settings
	Summary and Future Developments
	References
Afterword
Moving Forward: A Translation, Research and Policy Agenda for the Next Decade
Civil
Unlawful Behavior
References
Index