Handbook of Alternative Fuel Technologies

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HANDBOOK OF ALTERNATIVE FUEL TECHNOLOGIES......Page 3
Contents......Page 5
Preface......Page 7
Authors......Page 12
Contributors......Page 14
1.1 WORLD ENERGY CONSUMPTION......Page 15
Table of Contents......Page 0
1.2 U.S. ENERGY CONSUMPTION......Page 17
1.3 PETROLEUM......Page 19
1.4 NATURAL GAS......Page 24
1.5 COAL......Page 27
1.6 NUCLEAR ENERGY......Page 30
1.7 RENEWABLE ENERGY......Page 31
REFERENCES......Page 37
CONTENTS......Page 38
2.1 BACKGROUND......Page 39
2.2 SYNGAS CLASSIFICATION BASED ON ITS HEATING VALUE......Page 41
2.2.3 HIGH-BTU GAS......Page 42
2.3 COAL GASIFICATION REACTIONS......Page 43
2.3.1 STEAM GASIFICATION......Page 44
2.3.2 CARBON DIOXIDE GASIFICATION......Page 46
2.3.3 HYDROGASIFICATION......Page 47
2.3.4 PARTIAL OXIDATION......Page 48
2.3.5 WATER GAS SHIFT (WGS) REACTION......Page 49
2.4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF GASIFICATION PROCESSES......Page 51
2.4.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF COAL GASIFICATION AND ITS COMMERCIALIZATION......Page 52
2.4.3 GENERAL ASPECTS OF GASIFICATION......Page 53
2.4.4.1 Lurgi Gasification......Page 54
2.4.4.1.1 Lurgi Dry-Ash Gasifier......Page 55
2.4.4.2 Koppers-Totzek Gasification......Page 57
2.4.4.2.1 Koppers-Totzek Gasifier......Page 58
2.4.4.2.2 Features of the Koppers-Totzek Process......Page 59
2.4.4.2.3 Process Description of Koppers-Totzek Gasification......Page 60
2.4.4.3 Shell Gasification......Page 62
2.4.4.4 Texaco Gasification......Page 63
2.4.4.5 In Situ Gasification......Page 64
2.4.4.5.2 Underground Gasification System......Page 66
2.4.4.5.3 Methods for Underground Gasification......Page 68
2.4.4.5.4 Potential Problem Areas with In Situ Gasification......Page 69
2.4.4.6 Winkler Process......Page 70
2.4.4.6.2 Gasifier (Gas Generator)......Page 71
2.4.4.6.3 Features of the Winkler Process......Page 72
2.4.4.7 Wellman-Galusha Process......Page 74
2.4.4.8 The U-GAS Process......Page 75
2.4.4.9 Catalytic Coal Gasification......Page 77
2.4.4.10.1 Kellogg Molten Salt Process......Page 81
2.4.4.11 Plasma Gasification......Page 83
2.5 MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF COAL GASIFIERS......Page 85
REFERENCES......Page 89
CONTENTS......Page 93
3.2 COAL PYROLYSIS FOR LIQUID FUEL......Page 94
3.2.1 COED PROCESS......Page 95
3.2.2 TOSCOAL PROCESS......Page 97
3.2.3 LURGI–RUHRGAS PROCESS......Page 99
3.2.4 OCCIDENTAL FLASH PYROLYSIS PROCESS......Page 100
3.3 DIRECT LIQUEFACTION OF COAL......Page 101
3.3.2 H-COAL PROCESS......Page 104
3.3.3 SOLVENT REFINED COAL (SRC-I)......Page 106
3.3.4 EXXON DONOR SOLVENT (EDS) PROCESS......Page 108
3.3.6 NONINTEGRATED TWO-STAGE LIQUEFACTION (NTSL)......Page 109
3.3.7 THERMAL INTEGRATED TWO-STAGE LIQUEFACTION (ITSL)......Page 111
3.3.7.1 Lummus ITSL (1980–1984)......Page 112
3.3.7.2 Wilsonville ITSL (1982–1985)......Page 114
3.3.8 CATALYTIC TWO-STAGE LIQUEFACTION (CTSL)......Page 117
3.3.8.1 HRI’s CTSL Process......Page 118
3.3.8.2 Wilsonville CTSL......Page 119
3.4 INDIRECT LIQUEFACTION OF COAL......Page 120
3.4.1.1 Reaction Mechanism and Chemistry......Page 121
3.4.1.2 Fischer–Tropsch Catalysis......Page 124
3.4.1.3 Fischer–Tropsch Processes Other than SASOL......Page 125
3.4.2 CONVERSION OF SYNGAS TO METHANOL......Page 126
3.4.3 CONVERSION OF METHANOL TO GASOLINE OR TARGET HYDROCARBONS......Page 128
3.4.4 HIGHER ALCOHOL SYNTHESIS......Page 131
3.5 COAL AND OIL COPROCESSING......Page 132
REFERENCES......Page 133
4.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 136
4.2 COAL SLURRY CHARACTERIZATION......Page 138
4.2.1 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION......Page 139
4.2.2 RHEOLOGY......Page 141
4.2.5 INTERPARTICLE INTERACTIONS......Page 143
4.3 COAL-WATER SLURRY......Page 148
4.4 COAL-OIL SLURRY......Page 150
4.5 ADVANCED TRANSPORTATION OF COAL SLURRY......Page 151
4.6 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES......Page 154
4.7 COMBUSTION......Page 156
4.8 RECENT ADVANCES AND THE FUTURE......Page 158
REFERENCES......Page 159
5.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 164
5.3 COMPOSITION......Page 166
5.4 NATURAL GAS LIQUIDS......Page 167
5.5 CONVERSION OF NATURAL GAS TO LIQUIDS......Page 168
5.5.1 SYNGAS PRODUCTION......Page 169
5.5.2.1 General Process Description......Page 171
5.5.2.2 Chemistry......Page 172
5.5.2.5 Commercial Processes......Page 174
5.5.3 OTHER PROCESSES......Page 178
5.6 THE FUTURE......Page 180
REFERENCES......Page 181
CONTENTS......Page 182
6.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 183
6.2 RESID PRODUCTION......Page 186
6.3 PROPERTIES......Page 187
6.3.1 ELEMENTAL (ULTIMATE) ANALYSIS......Page 188
6.3.2 METALLIC CONTENT......Page 189
6.3.4 VISCOSITY......Page 190
6.3.5 CARBON RESIDUE......Page 191
6.3.7 MOLECULAR WEIGHT......Page 192
6.3.8 OTHER PROPERTIES......Page 193
6.4.1.1 Hydrocarbon Compounds......Page 194
6.4.1.3 Nitrogen Compounds......Page 195
6.4.2 FRACTIONATION......Page 196
6.4.2.1 Asphaltene Separation......Page 198
6.4.2.2 Fractionation of Deasphaltened Oil......Page 199
6.5 USE OF DATA......Page 200
6.6.2 COKING......Page 202
6.6.4 HYDROCONVERSION......Page 203
6.6.4.3 Dispersed Catalyst Processes......Page 204
6.6.6 FUTURE PROCESSES......Page 205
REFERENCES......Page 206
7.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 208
7.2 OCCURRENCE AND RESERVES......Page 211
7.3.1 ELEMENTAL (ULTIMATE) COMPOSITION......Page 213
7.3.2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION......Page 214
7.3.5 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES......Page 215
7.4 BITUMEN RECOVERY......Page 216
7.5 LIQUID FUELS FROM OIL SAND......Page 218
7.5.1 COKING PROCESSES......Page 222
7.5.2 PRODUCT UPGRADING......Page 225
7.5.3 OTHER PROCESSES......Page 226
7.5.4 THE FUTURE......Page 228
REFERENCES......Page 232
CONTENTS......Page 233
8.1 OIL SHALE AS A SYNTHETIC FUEL (SYNFUEL) SOURCE......Page 235
8.2.1 TECHNOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS......Page 240
8.2.2 ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL CONSTRAINTS......Page 242
8.2.3 ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS......Page 243
8.2.3.5 Fugitive Dust Emission and Particulate Matter Control......Page 244
8.3 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT NEEDS IN OIL SHALE......Page 245
8.3.2 CORRELATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES......Page 246
8.3.5 CATALYTIC UPGRADING OF SHALE OIL CRUDES......Page 247
8.4 PROPERTIES OF OIL SHALE AND SHALE OIL......Page 248
8.4.1.2 Porosity......Page 249
8.4.1.3 Permeability......Page 250
8.4.1.4 Compressive Strength......Page 252
8.4.1.5 Thermal Properties......Page 253
8.4.1.5.1 Thermal Conductivity......Page 254
8.4.1.5.2 Heat Capacity of Oil Shale......Page 258
8.4.1.5.3 Enthalpy and Heat of Retorting......Page 259
8.4.1.5.5 Self-Ignition Temperature (SIT)......Page 260
8.4.2.1 Thermoanalytical Properties of Oil Shale......Page 263
8.4.2.2 Thermochemical Properties of Oil Shale Minerals......Page 265
8.4.3.1 Electric Resistivity......Page 267
8.4.3.2 Dielectric Constants......Page 268
8.4.4.1 Derivation of Stoichiometric Coefficient......Page 270
8.4.4.3 Nitrogen Compounds in Shale Oil......Page 272
8.4.5.1 Analytical Methods......Page 273
8.4.5.1.1 ASTM D2887 Procedure......Page 274
8.5 OIL SHALE EXTRACTION AND RETORTING PROCESSES......Page 275
8.5.1 EX SITU RETORTING PROCESSES......Page 277
8.5.1.1 U.S. Bureau of Mines’ Gas Combustion Retort......Page 278
8.5.1.2.1 Process Description......Page 279
8.5.1.2.3 Gaseous and Crude Shale Oil Product from TOSCO Process......Page 281
8.5.1.2.4 TOSCO Process Units......Page 282
8.5.1.2.5 Spent Shale Disposal......Page 283
8.5.1.3 The Union Oil Retorting Process......Page 284
8.5.1.4 The Lurgi-Ruhrgas Process......Page 286
8.5.1.5 Superior’s Multimineral Process......Page 287
8.5.1.6 The Paraho Gas Combustion Process......Page 288
8.5.1.7 Petrosix Retorting Process......Page 290
8.5.1.8 Chevron Retort System......Page 291
8.5.2 IN SITU RETORTING PROCESSES......Page 292
8.5.2.2 Equity Oil Co. Process......Page 295
8.5.2.3 Occidental Petroleum Process......Page 296
8.5.2.5 Dow Chemical Co.’s Process......Page 297
8.5.2.6 Talley Energy Systems Process......Page 298
8.5.2.8 Osborne’s In Situ Process......Page 299
8.5.2.9 Shell Oil’s Thermally Conductive In Situ Conversion Process......Page 300
8.5.3 SHALE OIL REFINING AND UPGRADING......Page 301
8.5.3.2 Moving Bed Hydroprocessing Reactor......Page 302
8.5.3.4 Hydrocracking Process......Page 303
REFERENCES......Page 304
9.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 307
9.2.1 CONVERSION OF SYNGAS TO METHANOL......Page 309
9.2.1.1 CO Hydrogenation as Principal Reaction for Synthesis of Methanol......Page 310
9.2.1.3.1 CO-Free Syngas Feed......Page 311
9.2.1.3.2 CO2-Free Syngas Feed Conditions......Page 312
9.2.1.3.3 H2O-Free Syngas Feed Conditions......Page 313
9.2.2 ACTIVE FORM OF METHANOL SYNTHESIS CATALYST......Page 314
9.2.3 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM......Page 315
9.2.4 PROPERTIES OF METHANOL......Page 316
9.2.5 REACTION WITH METHANOL......Page 318
9.3 METHANOL SYNTHESIS TECHNOLOGY......Page 320
9.3.1 THE CONVENTIONAL ICI’S 100-ATM METHANOL SYNTHESIS PROCESS......Page 322
9.3.2 HALDOR TOPSOE A/S LOW-PRESSURE METHANOL SYNTHESIS PROCESS......Page 323
9.3.4 KRUPP UHDE’S METHANOL SYNTHESIS TECHNOLOGY......Page 325
9.3.5 LURGI ÖL-GAS-CHEMIE GMBH PROCESS......Page 326
9.3.6 SYNETIX LPM PROCESS......Page 327
9.3.7 LIQUID-PHASE METHANOL PROCESS......Page 329
REFERENCES......Page 330
10.1 FUEL ETHANOL FROM CORN......Page 332
10.2.1 INDUSTRIAL SIGNIFICANCES OF GRAIN ETHANOL......Page 335
10.2.2 CLEAN AIR ACT AMENDMENTS OF 1990......Page 336
10.2.3 ETHANOL PRODUCTION FROM CORN......Page 337
10.3.1 SUGAR CONTENTS OF BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS......Page 340
10.3.2 CONVERSION OF SUGARS TO ETHANOL......Page 341
10.4 CORN-TO-ETHANOL PROCESS TECHNOLOGY......Page 342
10.5 ETHANOL AS OXYGENATED FUEL......Page 345
10.6 ETHANOL VEHICLES......Page 347
10.7 USE OF ETHANOL OTHER THAN AS RENEWABLE FUEL......Page 349
REFERENCES......Page 350
CONTENTS......Page 351
11.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 352
11.1.2 MANUFACTURE OF INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL......Page 353
11.1.4 SUGARS......Page 354
11.1.5 STARCHES......Page 355
11.1.6 ALCOHOL WITHOUT POLLUTION......Page 356
11.1.7 CELLULOSIC MATERIALS......Page 357
11.2 CONVERSION OF AGRICULTURAL LIGNOCELLULOSIC FEEDSTOCKS......Page 358
11.2.1 ACID OR CHEMICAL HYDROLYSIS......Page 360
11.2.1.1 Process Description......Page 361
11.2.2 ENZYMATIC HYDROLYSIS......Page 362
11.3.1 PRETREATMENT......Page 363
11.3.1.2 Dilute Acid Prehydrolysis......Page 365
11.3.1.3 Organosolv Pretreatment......Page 366
11.3.1.4 Combined RASH and Organosolv Pretreatment......Page 367
11.3.2 ENZYME PRODUCTION AND INHIBITION......Page 368
11.3.3.1 Cellulase Adsorption......Page 369
11.3.3.2 Mechanism of Hydrolysis......Page 370
11.3.4.1 Separate Hydrolysis and Fermentation......Page 371
11.3.4.2 Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation......Page 372
11.3.4.3 Comparison between SSF and SHF Processes......Page 373
11.3.4.4 Xylose Fermentation......Page 374
11.4 LIGNIN CONVERSION......Page 375
11.6 ENERGY BALANCE FOR ETHANOL PRODUCTION FROM BIOMASS......Page 378
REFERENCES......Page 380
12.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 384
12.2.2 GASIFICATION......Page 388
12.2.3 LIQUEFACTION......Page 393
12.2.4 PYROLYSIS......Page 394
12.3 BIOLOGICAL CONVERSION: ANAEROBIC DIGESTION......Page 396
REFERENCES......Page 398
13.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 401
13.2.2 GASIFICATION OF MSW......Page 403
13.2.4 PYROLYSIS OF MSW......Page 404
13.3.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 408
13.3.2 MECHANICAL RECYCLING......Page 409
13.3.3.1 Pyrolysis......Page 410
13.3.3.2 Thermal Cracking......Page 411
13.3.3.3 Catalytic Cracking......Page 412
13.3.3.4 Degradative Extrusion......Page 414
13.4.2 PYROLYSIS OF SPENT TIRES......Page 415
13.4.2.1 Occidental Flash Pyrolysis......Page 416
13.4.2.3 Carbonization......Page 417
13.4.3 COCOMBUSTION OF SCRAP TIRES AND TDFS......Page 418
13.4.4 IFP SPENT TIRE DEPOLYMERIZATION PROCESS......Page 419
13.4.6 GOODYEAR’S DEVULCANIZATION PROCESS......Page 420
13.4.7 HYDROGENATION OF SPENT TIRE RUBBER......Page 421
REFERENCES......Page 422
CONTENTS......Page 426
14.2.1 NEED FOR GEOTHERMAL ENERGY......Page 427
14.2.3 OCCURRENCE OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY......Page 428
14.2.4 ADVANTAGES OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY......Page 430
14.2.5 GLOBAL GEOTHERMAL ENERGY......Page 431
14.3 HISTORY OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY DEVELOPMENTS......Page 433
14.4.1 GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS......Page 435
14.4.1.2 Flash Steam Cycle......Page 436
14.4.1.3 Binary Cycle......Page 437
14.4.1.4 Hot Dry Rock (Dry Geothermal Sources) Systems......Page 438
14.4.1.5 Fresh Water Production......Page 439
14.4.2.1 Space and District Heating......Page 440
14.4.2.4 Industrial Process Heat......Page 441
14.4.3 GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMPS......Page 442
14.5.1 MAJOR RESEARCH EFFORTS......Page 443
14.5.2.2 Brine-Handling Technology......Page 444
14.6 CONCLUSION......Page 445
REFERENCES......Page 446
15.1 NUCLEAR FISSION AND NUCLEAR REACTOR PHYSICS......Page 447
15.2 ELECTRICITY GENERATION FROM NUCLEAR REACTORS......Page 455
15.2.1 REACTOR CONTROL AND A TOY MODEL......Page 459
15.3 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE......Page 462
15.4 TYPES OF REACTORS......Page 466
15.4.1 ADVANCED REACTORS AND CONCEPTS......Page 471
15.5 PUBLIC CONCERNS OF SAFETY AND HEALTH......Page 479
15.5.1 NUCLEAR WEAPONS PROLIFERATION......Page 486
15.5.2 NUCLEAR WASTE DISPOSAL......Page 487
15.6 NUCLEAR FUSION......Page 488
REFERENCES......Page 493
CONTENTS......Page 496
16.2.2 OPERATION......Page 497
16.2.3.1 Heat Absorption from a Reservoir to Use for Operation......Page 499
16.2.4 CELL VOLTAGE......Page 500
16.3.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION......Page 501
16.3.2 FUEL CELLS CLASSIFICATION......Page 502
16.4.1.1.1 Electrolyte......Page 505
16.4.1.1.2 Electrodes......Page 507
16.4.1.1.3 Teflon Masks and Current Collectors......Page 508
16.4.1.2 Operation Characteristics......Page 509
16.4.2 ALKALINE FUEL CELLS......Page 511
16.4.3 PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELLS......Page 513
16.5.1 MOLTEN CARBONATE FUEL CELLS......Page 514
16.5.2 SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELLS......Page 515
16.6.1.1 Fossil Fuels......Page 517
16.6.2 HYDROGEN STORAGE......Page 519
16.7.2 COST......Page 521
16.7.3 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT......Page 522
16.8 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ISSUES......Page 523
REFERENCES......Page 524