Haematococcus: Biochemistry, Biotechnology and Biomedical Applications

Preface
Contents
Contributors
Chapter 1: An Introduction to Haematococcus
	1.1 Biology of Haematococcus lacustris
		1.1.1 Cell Cycle and Morphology
		1.1.2 Ultrastructural Changes of H. lacustris During Carotenogenesis
	1.2 Biochemical Composition of Haematococcus lacustris
		1.2.1 Protein
		1.2.2 Carbohydrates
		1.2.3 Carotenoids
		1.2.4 Lipids
	References
Part I: Cultivation and Astaxanthin Optimization
	Chapter 2: Nutritional Studies and Optimization of Biomass from Unicellular Microalgae Haematococcus sp.
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Nutritional Compounds of Haematococcus
			2.2.1 Astaxanthin
			2.2.2 β-Carotenoid
			2.2.3 Lutein
			2.2.4 Zeaxanthin
			2.2.5 Canthaxanthin
		2.3 Optimization of Physical and Chemical Parameters for the Production of Biomass
			2.3.1 Salinity
			2.3.2 Temperature
			2.3.3 Light Intensity
			2.3.4 Carbon Sources
			2.3.5 Nitrogen Sources
		2.4 Microalgal Cultivation Methods for the Production of Biomass
			2.4.1 Cultivation of Open Ponds
			2.4.2 Closed Cultivation Method: Photobioreactors
			2.4.3 Vertical and Horizontal Tubular Photobioreactors
			2.4.4 Flat Panel Photobioreactors
		2.5 Column Photobioreactors
			2.5.1 Stirred Photobioreactors
			2.5.2 Airlift Photobioreactors
			2.5.3 Bubble Column Photobioreactors
		References
	Chapter 3: Abiotic Stress Factors and High Astaxanthin Accumulation in Haematococcus pluvialis
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Generalities About Haematococcus pluvialis
			3.2.1 Taxonomy and Distribution
			3.2.2 Cell Morphology and Life Cycle of H. pluvialis
			3.2.3 Biochemical Composition of H. pluvialis
		3.3 Haematococcus Astaxanthin
			3.3.1 Structure and Biological Functions of Astaxanthin
			3.3.2 Astaxanthin Biosynthetic Pathway in H. pluvialis
			3.3.3 Influence of Stress Factors on Improvement of Astaxanthin Accumulation
			3.3.4 Effect of Light Intensity
			3.3.5 Effects of Nutrient Concentration
			3.3.6 Effect of Salinity
			3.3.7 Effect of Temperature
			3.3.8 Effect of pH
		3.4 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 4: Haematococcus Cultivation for Astaxanthin Production
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Astaxanthin
		4.3 Haematococcus pluvialis
		4.4 Haematococcus Cultivation for Astaxanthin Production
		4.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 5: Bottlenecks in the Cultivation Processes of Haematococcus pluvialis
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Cultivation Process of Haematococcus Sp.
		5.3 Contamination During Cultivation Process
			5.3.1 Open Pond Farming
			5.3.2 Closed System Cultivation
		5.4 Bottlenecks in Cultivation Parameters
			5.4.1 Nutrient Supplements and Its Effect on Growth
			5.4.2 Aeration and Light Properties
			5.4.3 Cross Contamination and Its Effect on Process
			5.4.4 Harvesting Difficulties and Solutions
		5.5 Conclusion
		References
Part II: Biochemistry
	Chapter 6: Biochemistry of Haematococcus
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Biochemical Composition of Haematococcus pluvialis
			6.2.1 Carbohydrates and Proteins
			6.2.2 Lipids
		6.3 Biochemistry of Astaxanthin (AX)
		6.4 Biosynthesis of Astaxanthin
		6.5 Ion Channel Activation
		6.6 Anti-lipid Peroxidation Properties
		6.7 Cancer Prevention
		6.8 Applications of Astaxanthin in Other Fields
		6.9 Effect on DNA Repair
		6.10 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 7: Lipids, Lipidomics, and Biosurfactants of Haematococcus
		7.1 Lipidomics
		7.2 Lipidomics Workflow and Techniques
			7.2.1 Sample Preparation
			7.2.2 Lipid Extraction
				7.2.2.1 Modified Bligh and Dyer Method
				7.2.2.2 Modified Folch Method
				7.2.2.3 MTBE Method
				7.2.2.4 BUME Method
			7.2.3 Lipid Separation
				7.2.3.1 Shotgun Lipidomics
				7.2.3.2 LC Based Lipidomics
			7.2.4 MS-Based Lipid Analysis
				7.2.4.1 Ionization Techniques
				7.2.4.2 Electrospray Ionization (ESI)
				7.2.4.3 Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization (MALDI)
				7.2.4.4 Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Ionization (APCI)
				7.2.4.5 Atmospheric Pressure Photoionization (APPI)
				7.2.4.6 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS)
				7.2.4.7 Desorption Electrospray Ionization (DESI)
				7.2.4.8 MS Analysis
				7.2.4.9 Product Ion Scan
				7.2.4.10 Precursor Ion Scan (PIS)
				7.2.4.11 Neutral Loss Scan (NLS)
				7.2.4.12 Selected/Multiple Reaction Monitoring (SRM/MRM)
				7.2.4.13 Data Detection
			7.2.5 Applications of Lipidomics
				7.2.5.1 Biosurfactant
				7.2.5.2 Structure of Biosurfactant
		7.3 Biosurfactant Types
			7.3.1 On the Basis of Molecular Weight
				7.3.1.1 Biosurfactants with Low Molecular Weight
				7.3.1.2 Biosurfactants with High Molecular Weight
		7.4 Categorized According to Molecular Weight
			7.4.1 Based on the Chemical Composition
				7.4.1.1 Glycolipids
				7.4.1.2 Rhamnolipids
				7.4.1.3 Trehalolipids
				7.4.1.4 Sophorolipids
				7.4.1.5 Lipopeptides and Lipoprotein
				7.4.1.6 Fatty Acid and Phospholipids
				7.4.1.7 Polymeric Biosurfactant
				7.4.1.8 Particulate Biosurfactant
			7.4.2 Properties of Microbial Biosurfactants
				7.4.2.1 Surface and Interfacial Activity
				7.4.2.2 Temperature, pH, and Ionic Strength
				7.4.2.3 Biodegradability
				7.4.2.4 Low Toxicity
				7.4.2.5 Availability
				7.4.2.6 Specificity
				7.4.2.7 Biocompatibility and Digestibility
				7.4.2.8 The Use of Biosurfactants and Their Significance
					Application of Soil Quality Improvement
					Application of Biosurfactant in Pharmaceutical Industry
				7.4.2.9 Antioxidant Properties
			7.4.3 Biosurfactants from Algae
			7.4.4 Biosurfactants from Haematococcus
				7.4.4.1 Astaxanthin Production by Green Microalgae, Haematococcus pluvialis
				7.4.4.2 Biotechnology Applied to Haematococcus pluvialis
		References
	Chapter 8: Genetic Engineering Approaches for Haematococcus: Recent Developments in Genome Sequencing and Strain Improvement
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 An Overview to H. pluvialis and Its Metabolic Pathway for Carotenoid Production
		8.3 Genome Sequencing Approaches of H. pluvialis
		8.4 Recent Advances in the Improvement of H. pluvialis Via Genetic Engineering Applications
		8.5 Conclusion
		References
Part III: Food and Environmental Applications
	Chapter 9: Food and Food Packaging Technology
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Applications in the Food Industry
			9.2.1 Food Supplement/Nutraceuticals
			9.2.2 Bakery Industry
				9.2.2.1 Haematococcus pluvialis Enriched Cookies
				9.2.2.2 H. pluvialis Incorporated Filloas
			9.2.3 Meat Industry
				9.2.3.1 Meat Analogues
				9.2.3.2 Raw Ground Pork Meat Enrich with Haematococcus pluvialis Extract
			9.2.4 Other Food Industries Sectors
				9.2.4.1 Ready-To-Use Syrup
		9.3 Packaging Industry
		9.4 Challenges and Opportunities
		9.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 10: Application of Nano-materials
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Methods of Synthesis of Nanoparticles
		10.3 Green Synthesis of NPs
		10.4 Mechanism of Biosynthesis
		10.5 Factors Affecting NPs Biosynthesis
		10.6 Characterization of Nanoparticles
		10.7 Application of Nanoparticles
		10.8 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 11: Environmental Impacts Related to Upstream and Downstream Processing of Haematococcus pluvialis
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 State of the Art
		11.3 Potential Environmental Impacts
			11.3.1 Ecosystem Quality Damage Category
			11.3.2 Resources Consumption Damage Category
			11.3.3 Human Health Damage Category
			11.3.4 Climate Change Damage Category
		11.4 Conclusion
		References
Part IV: Therapeutic and Clinical Applications
	Chapter 12: Therapeutic Potential of Haematococcus pluvialis in the Field of Drug Delivery
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Therapeutic Properties of H. pluvialis
			12.2.1 Antioxidant Properties
				12.2.1.1 Various Drug Delivery Modes of AST Against Oxidative Stress
			12.2.2 Nutrient supplements
				12.2.2.1 Various Drug Delivery Modes of AST Against Malnutrition
			12.2.3 Anticancer activities
				12.2.3.1 Various Drug Delivery Modes of AST Against Cancer
			12.2.4 Antimicrobial Effects
				12.2.4.1 Various drug delivery modes of AST against microbial infections
			12.2.5 Anti-Diabetic Properties
				12.2.5.1 Various Drug Delivery Modes of AST Against Diabetes
			12.2.6 Cardio Protectant Characteristics
				12.2.6.1 Various Drug Delivery Modes of AST Against Cardiovascular Diseases
			12.2.7 Anti-Aging Properties
				12.2.7.1 Various Drug Delivery Modes of AST Against Aging
			12.2.8 Wound Healing Applications
				12.2.8.1 Various Drug Delivery Modes of AST Against Wounds
			12.2.9 Ocular Protectant
				12.2.9.1 Various Drug Delivery Modes of AST Against Ocular Diseases
		12.3 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 13: Clinical Applications of Haematococcus
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Haematococcus lacustris and Astaxanthin Production
		13.3 Antioxidant Activity of Haematococcus Astaxanthin
		13.4 Anticancer Activity of Haematococcus Astaxanthin
		13.5 Haematococcus Astaxanthin for Skin Health
		13.6 Haematococcus Astaxanthin and Neurodegenerative Diseases
		13.7 The Anti-inflammation Mechanisms of Astaxanthin
		13.8 Haematococcus Astaxanthin and Eye Health
		13.9 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 14: In Silico Exploration of Therapeutics in Haematococcus pluvialis
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Protein Functional Annotation
		14.3 Gene Annotation
		14.4 Molecular Docking of Astaxanthin to β-Glucuronidase
		14.5 Computational Binding Analysis of Astaxanthin with Hepatocellular Carcinoma Proteins
		14.6 Computational Screening of Metabolites
		14.7 Modelling of CYP450 Protein of H. pluvialis
		14.8 Conclusion
		Reference
Part V: Biotechnological and Industrial Applications
	Chapter 15: Algal Polymers, Proteins, and Pigments for Industrial Applications
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Algal Polymers
			15.2.1 Algal Polysaccharides
			15.2.2 Cellulose
			15.2.3 Starch
			15.2.4 Agar
			15.2.5 Alginate
			15.2.6 Laminarin
			15.2.7 Fucoidans
			15.2.8 Carrgeenan
			15.2.9 Ulvan
		15.3 Polymers from Cyanobacteria
			15.3.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)
			15.3.2 Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB)
			15.3.3 Polyurethane (PU), Cellulose Acetate and Polylactic acid (PLA)
		15.4 Algae-Polymer Biocomposites and Applications
		15.5 Algal Proteins
		15.6 Applications of Algal Proteins
			15.6.1 Nutritional Applications
			15.6.2 Industrial Applications
		15.7 As Feed for Animals
		15.8 Bioactive Peptides
		15.9 Algal Pigments
		15.10 Chlorophylls
		15.11 Phycobilins
		15.12 Carotenoids
		15.13 Astaxanthin
		15.14 Phycoerythrin, Phycocyanin and Allophycocyanin
		15.15 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 16: Valorising Haematococcus Biomass for Commercial Applications
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Haematococcus-Based Products: International Market
		16.3 In Vitro and In Vivo Studies
		16.4 Haematococcus in Various Industrial Sectors
		16.5 Haematococcus in Aquaculture
		16.6 Haematococcus in Cosmetics
			16.6.1 Skincare
			16.6.2 Hair Care
			16.6.3 Environmental Benefits of Haematococcus in Cosmetics
			16.6.4 Safety and Regulations of Haematococcus in Cosmetics
		16.7 Haematococcus in the Healthcare Sector
		16.8 Haematococcus in the Pharmaceutical
		16.9 Haematococcus in Food Industry
		16.10 Haematococcus in Agriculture
			16.10.1 Haematococcus as a Natural Fertiliser
			16.10.2 Haematococcus for Livestock Feed
			16.10.3 Haematococcus in Pest Control
			16.10.4 Haematococcus in Soil Health and Conservation
			16.10.5 Cost Benefits of Haematococcus in Agriculture
		16.11 Challenges in the Production and Processing of Haematococcus
		16.12 International Brands of Haematococcus
		16.13 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 17: Biotechnological Applications of Haematococcus: Future Perspectives
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Astaxanthin as a Powerful Active Compound
		17.3 Molecular Mechanisms Behind the Effects of Astaxanthin
		17.4 The Importance of Natural Astaxanthin Derived from Haematococcus
		17.5 Haematococcus Cells
		17.6 Haematococcus Cells as Natural Astaxanthin Source
		17.7 Astaxanthin Production from Haematococcus Cells
		17.8 Astaxanthin Accumulation in Haematococcus Cells
		17.9 Astaxanthin Extraction from Haematococcus Cells
		17.10 The New Trends in Astaxanthin Extraction from Haematococcus Cells
		17.11 Further Recommendations for Future Applications
			17.11.1 Haematococcus Cultivation
			17.11.2 Commercial Natural Astaxanthin Production
			17.11.3 Utilization of Microalgal Astaxanthin as an End-Product
			17.11.4 Microalgal Astaxanthin as a Diet Supplementary
		References
	Chapter 18: Commercialization of Haematococcus-Based Products: Current Status and Future Forecast
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Microalgal Industrial Horse Haematococcus pluvialis and Their Commercial Significance
		18.3 Commercial Products Derived from Haematococcus and Their Market Value
			18.3.1 Astaxanthin
			18.3.2 β-Carotene
			18.3.3 Lutein
			18.3.4 Lipid (Biodiesel/Ethanol)
		18.4 Competitive Potential of Haematococcus in Global Astaxanthin Market
		18.5 Forecast for Haematococcus-Based Commercially-Important Compounds
		18.6 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 19: Bioenergy Applications of Haematococcus
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 Bioenergy Potential of Haematococcus
		19.3 Biomass Conversion of Haematococcus for Energy Applications
		19.4 Pyrolysis
			19.4.1 Pyrolysis of Haematococcus
		19.5 Gasification
			19.5.1 Primary Concepts of Gasification
				19.5.1.1 Pyrolysis Zone
				19.5.1.2 Oxidation Zone
				19.5.1.3 Reduction Zone
		19.6 Gasification of Haematococcus
		19.7 Thermochemical Liquefaction
			19.7.1 Basics of Thermochemical Liquefaction
			19.7.2 Thermochemical Liquefaction of Haematococcus
		19.8 Fermentation
			19.8.1 Fundamentals of Fermentation
			19.8.2 Fermentation of Haematococcus
		19.9 Biogas
			19.9.1 Primary Concept on Biogas
			19.9.2 Biogas from Haematococcus
		19.10 Esterification
			19.10.1 Basics of Esterification
			19.10.2 Esterification of Haematococcus
		19.11 Algal Biofuel for Food Security
			19.11.1 Impact of Traditional Biofuel on Food Security
			19.11.2 Role of Algal Biofuel to Address the Concern
		19.12 Prospects and Challenges
		19.13 Conclusion
		Bibliography