Gut Microbiome and Brain Ageing: Brain Aging

Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
About the Editors
Contributors
1: Gut Microbiome and Brain Aging
	1.1	 Introduction
	1.2	 Gut Microbiota and Homeostasis
	1.3	 The Gut Microbiome During Aging
	1.4	 Elderly-Specific Factors Affecting the Gut Microbiota
	1.5	 Gut-Brain Axis
	1.6	 Gut-Brain Axis in Aging
	1.7	 Gut Microbiome and Alzheimer’s Disease
	1.8	 Gut Microbiome and Parkinson’s Disease
	1.9	 Gut Microbiome and Schizophrenia
	1.10	 Gut Microbiome and Multiple Sclerosis
	1.11	 Gut Microbiome, Depression, and Anxiety
	1.12	 Skin Pathophysiology and Gut Microbiome
	1.13	 Gut Microbiome and Skin Aging
	1.14	 Gut Microbiome in Skin and Hair Pathology
	1.15	 Gut Skin Brain Axis
	1.16	 Hormone Interaction and Gut-Brain Axis
	1.17	 Ayurveda and Gut-Brain Axis: Role of Ayurveda in Gut-Brain Skin Axis
	1.18	 Neutraceuticals and Probiotic
	1.19	 Conclusion
	References
2: The Scenario of Emerging Gut Microbiome Cross Talks in Brain Aging
	2.1	 Introduction
	2.2	 Brain Aging
	2.3	 Hallmarks of Brain Aging
	2.4	 Senescence
	2.5	 Epidemiology of Neurological Diseases
	2.6	 Pathophysiology of Brain Aging
	2.7	 Gut Microbiome and Its Functional Aspects
	2.8	 Role of Gut Microbiome in CNS-Related Problems
	2.9	 Role of Gut Microbiota in Cognitive Decline and Brain Health
	2.10	 Gut-Brain Axis
	2.11	 Therapeutic Approaches
	2.12	 Conclusion
	References
3: The Gut Microbiome and the Central Nervous System (CNS)
	3.1	 Gut Microbiome
	3.2	 Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis
		3.2.1	 Enteric Nervous System (ENS)
		3.2.2	 Neuroendocrine Pathway
		3.2.3	 Neuroimmune Pathway
		3.2.4	 Neurotransmitters and Metabolites
	3.3	 Gut Microbiome and the Brain in the Early Life
		3.3.1	 Gut Microbiome and Development of the Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)
	3.4	 Gut Microbiome and the Brain in the Adult Life
		3.4.1	 Gut Microbiome and Adult Neurogenesis
	3.5	 Gut Microbiota and Central Nervous System (CNS) Disorders
		3.5.1	 Microbiome in Inflammatory Disease
			3.5.1.1	 Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
		3.5.2	 Microbiome in Neurodegenerative Diseases
			3.5.2.1	 Alzheimer’s Disease
			3.5.2.2	 Parkinson’s Disease
			3.5.2.3	 Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)
			3.5.2.4	 Stroke
	3.6	 Targeting the Microbiome
		3.6.1	 Diagnosis and Prognosis
		3.6.2	 Therapeutic Targets
	3.7	 Microbiota as Regulators of Longevity and Their Anti-aging Functions
	3.8	 Conclusion
	References
4: Gut-Brain Interplay and Cognitive Degeneration
	4.1	 Introduction
	4.2	 Influencing Factors on Gut Microbiota
	4.3	 Mode of Birth
	4.4	 Diet
	4.5	 Environment
	4.6	 Exercise
	4.7	 Obesity
	4.8	 Medication
	4.9	 Stress-Induced Alterations in Gut Microbiota
	4.10	 Addiction
	4.11	 GM Involved in Brain Function and Behavior
	4.12	 The Gut Microbiome and Diseases
	4.13	 Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
	4.14	 Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)
	4.15	 Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)
	4.16	 Parkinson’s Disease (PD)
	4.17	 Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
	4.18	 Epilepsy
	4.19	 Schizophrenia
	4.20	 GM Effect on Behavior and Cognition
	4.21	 GM Influences the Brain Axis
	4.22	 Mechanisms and Pathways for the Microbiota Affecting Cognition
	4.23	 GM Modification for Therapeutic Changes
	4.24	 Conclusions and Perspectives
	References
5: Neurological Disorders: The Impact of Alteration in Gut Microbiome and Inflammation on Disease Development
	5.1	 Introduction
	5.2	 Influence of Gut Microbiota on Brain Function and Development
	5.3	 Gut Microbiota-Brain Signaling via the Immune System
	5.4	 Neuroinflammation
		5.4.1	 Altered Gut Microbiome
	5.5	 Microbiota Influenced the Blood-Brain Barrier and the Structure of the Brain
	5.6	 Neurological Disorders
		5.6.1	 Development Disorders
			5.6.1.1	 Autism Spectrum Disorder
			5.6.1.2	 Attention Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
		5.6.2	 Neurodegeneration
			5.6.2.1	 Parkinson’s Disease
			5.6.2.2	 Alzheimer’s Disease
			5.6.2.3	 Multiple Sclerosis
			5.6.2.4	 Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
			5.6.2.5	 Huntington’s Disease
			5.6.2.6	 Epilepsy
			5.6.2.7	 Stroke
	5.7	 Conclusion and Future Perspective
	References
6: Influence of Altered Gut Microbiota in Cellular Senescence
	6.1	 Introduction
	6.2	 Stress and Senescence
	6.3	 Gut Microbial Dysbiosis and Associated Pathology
	6.4	 Immune Senescence and Gut Microbiome
	6.5	 Interlink Between Age-Related Alterations in Gut and Cellular Senescence
	6.6	 Role of Gut Microbiome in Amelioration of Cellular Senescence
	6.7	 Conclusion
	References
7: Molecular Interplay of Oxidative Stress and Gut Microbiome in Aging
	7.1	 Introduction
	7.2	 Physiology and Biochemistry of Oxidative Stress
	7.3	 Aging and Oxidative Stress
	7.4	 List of Age-Related Diseases in Oxidative Stress Conditions
	7.5	 Gut Microbiota
	7.6	 Major Functions of Gut Microbiota
		7.6.1	 Metabolic Effects
		7.6.2	 Host Protection and Anti-inflammatory or Immunomodulatory Effects
		7.6.3	 Neurological Effects
		7.6.4	 The Gut Microbiome During Biological Aging
	7.7	 Extreme Aging vs Microbial Traces
	7.8	 Molecular Interplay Between Oxidative Stress and Gut Microbiome in Aging
	7.9	 Conclusion
	References
8: The Gut Microbiome, Microbial-Produced Pro-inflammatory Neurotoxins, and Neurological Disorders
	8.1	 Introduction
	8.2	 Gut Microbiome
	8.3	 Brain Role in Gut Microbiome
	8.4	 Role of Microbiome in Gut Brain Axis (GBA)
	8.5	 Microbiota in Immune Homeostasis
	8.6	 Gut Microbiome-Derived Neurotoxins
	8.7	 Gut Microbiome and Neurological Disorders
	8.8	 Alzheimer’s Disease
	8.9	 Multiple Sclerosis
	8.10	 Parkinson’s Disease
	8.11	 Rheumatoid Arthritis
	8.12	 Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
	8.13	 Anxiety
	8.14	 Others Diseases
	8.15	 Conclusion
	8.16	 Future Perspective
	References
9: Gut Microbiota and Altered Behaviour: Target on Neuroimmune Interplays
	9.1	 Introduction
	9.2	 Gut Microbiota
	9.3	 Gut-Brain Axis
	9.4	 Neuroimmune Metabolites and Mental Health
	9.5	 Small Chain Fatty Acids (SCFAs)
	9.6	 Gamma Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
	9.7	 Serotonin
	9.8	 Dopamine
	9.9	 Neuroimmune Disorders and Gut Microbiota Interplay
		9.9.1	 Alzheimer’s Disease
		9.9.2	 Parkinson’s Disease
		9.9.3	 Autism Spectrum Disorder
		9.9.4	 Multiple Sclerosis
	9.10	 Dysbiosis of Gut Microbiota
	9.11	 Probiotics and Neuroimmune Interplay
	9.12	 Conclusion
	References
10: Customised Microbiome Restoration Approaches in Older People: Perspectives and Therapeutic Prospects
	10.1	 Introduction
	10.2	 The Gut Microbiome’s Classification
	10.3	 The Gut Microbiome: Its Composition, Function, and Lifetime Evolution
	10.4	 Health and Disease Outcomes of the Gut Microbiota
	10.5	 Age-Related Influences on the Microbiome
	10.6	 Changes in Gut Microbiome with Ageing
	10.7	 Ageing and the Gut Microbiome
	10.8	 Microbiome as a Therapeutically Important Factor
	10.9	 Implementation of Microbiome Therapeutics
	10.10	 Additive Therapy
	10.11	 Subtractive Therapy
	10.12	 Modulatory Therapy
	10.13	 Limitations in the Field of Microbiome-Based Therapies
	10.14	 Conclusion
	References
11: Gut-Microbiota as a Therapeutic Intervention for Cognitive Damage
	11.1	 Introduction
	11.2	 Gut-Brain Axis
	11.3	 Correlation Between Gut Microbiota and Cognitive Dysfunction
	11.4	 Gut Microbiota and Alzheimer’s Disease
	11.5	 Gut Microbiota as Biomarkers for Cognitive Disorders
	11.6	 Gut Microbiome-Based Therapeutic Approaches
	11.7	 Diet
	11.8	 Diet Approach-Related Challenges
	11.9	 Probiotics
	11.10	 Probiotic Therapeutics’ Challenges
	11.11	 Fecal Microbiota Transplantation
	11.12	 Conclusion and Future Directions
	References
12: Pharmacological and Nutritional Approaches to Modulate Microglial Polarization in Cognitive Senescence
	12.1	 Introduction
	12.2	 Senescence
	12.3	 Ageing
	12.4	 Microglial Cells and Inflammation
	12.5	 Microglia Polarization and Cognitive Senescence
	12.6	 Pharmacological Approach in Cognitive Senescence
	12.7	 Nutritional Approach in Cognitive Senescence
	12.8	 Conclusion
	References
13: Role of Gut Brain and Gut Oral Axis in Progression of Parkinson’s Disease with Special Focus on Gut Microbes
	13.1	 Introduction
	13.2	 Gut Microbiota
	13.3	 Involvement of Gut in Parkinson’s Disease
	13.4	 Inflammation in Parkinson’s Disease
	13.5	 Gut Dysbiosis
	13.6	 Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis
	13.7	 Bacterial-Derived Products and Potential Effects in Parkinson’s Disease Pathology
		13.7.1	 SCFA
			13.7.1.1	 Butyrate
			13.7.1.2	 Propionate
			13.7.1.3	 Acetate
		13.7.2	 Mucin-Degrading Activity
		13.7.3	 Hydrogen Production
		13.7.4	 Vitamin Biosynthesis
		13.7.5	 Intestinal Ghrelin Secretion
	13.8	 Correlation Between GM Alterations and Parkinson’s Disease Clinical Features
		13.8.1	 Disease Severity
		13.8.2	 Parkinson’s Disease Duration
		13.8.3	 Medication
		13.8.4	 Motor Symptoms
		13.8.5	 Nonmotor Symptoms
	13.9	 Oral Microbiota
	13.10	 Oral Dysbiosis
	13.11	 Role of Porphyromonas gingivalis in Forming the Oral-Gut Axis in Parkinson’s Disease
	13.12	 Probiotics in Parkinson’s Disease
	13.13	 Conclusion
	References
14: The Gut Microbiome-Induced Changes in Brain Immune System and Their Role in Epilepsy
	14.1	 Introduction
		14.1.1	 Gut Microbiome
	14.2	 Microbiota in Healthy Conditions
	14.3	 Involvement of Gut Microbiota in Pathophysiological Conditions
	14.4	 Gut Microbiome and Immune System
	14.5	 Brain Immunity
	14.6	 Gut Microbiome-Induced Brain Immunity Changes
	14.7	 Epilepsy
	14.8	 Gut Microbiome-Induced Factors’ Role in Epilepsy
	14.9	 Neurocysticercosis and Epilepsy
	14.10	 Conclusion
	References
15: Exploring the Interplay Between Gut Microflora and Parkinson’s
	15.1	 Introduction
	15.2	 Potential Ways Through Which the Gut Microbiome Affects the Activity of Brain
	15.3	 Immunological Mechanisms
		15.3.1	 Nonspecific Immune System (Innate)
		15.3.2	 Specific Immune System (Adaptive)
	15.4	 Biochemical Mechanisms
	15.5	 Neuroendocrine Mechanisms
	15.6	 Parkinson’s Disease and Its Association with the Gut Microbiota
	15.7	 Influence of Gut Microbiota Metabolites on Brain Ageing
		15.7.1	 Gut Metabolites in Ageing
		15.7.2	 Parenchymal Microglia in Ageing
	15.8	 Treatment Methods: Altering the Gut Microbiome to Alter Parkinson’s Disease
	15.9	 Faecal Microbiota Transplantation (FMT)
	15.10	 Conclusion and Future Perspective
	References
16: Gut Microbiome: A Key Factor in Ageing and an Aim for Anti-senescence Intervention
	16.1	 Introduction
	16.2	 The Relevance of the Gut Microbiome in Health and Disease
	16.3	 Ageing and Gut Microbiome
	16.4	 The Structure of the Microbiota Changes with Age and External Factors
	16.5	 How the Gut Microbiome Affects Human Ageing!
	16.6	 Microbiome-Based Ageing Interventions
	16.7	 Anti-ageing Interventions and Intestinal Microbiota
	16.8	 Diet Intervention and Gut Microbiome
	16.9	 Calorie Restriction (CR) and Intermittent Fasting (IF)
	16.10	 Dietary Patterns and the Gut Microbiome, as well as Healthy Foods
	16.11	 Exercise Effect on the Intestinal Microbiota and Ageing
	16.12	 Gut Microbiota-Drug Link and Ageing
	16.13	 The Gut Microbiota and Human Ageing Diseases
	16.14	 Gut Microbiota in Gut-Muscle Axis and the Function in Ageing
	16.15	 Ageing Microbiota-Gut-Liver Axis
	16.16	 Ageing Microbiota-Gut-Pancreas Axis
	16.17	 Ageing Microbiota-Gut-Heart Axis
	16.18	 Ageing Microbiota-Gut-Skin Axis
	16.19	 Ageing Microbiota-Gut-Bone Axis
	16.20	 Gut-Brain Axis with Ageing Microbiota
	16.21	 Cellular Senescence Links Biological Ageing and the Aim of Gut Microbiome for Anti-senescence Intervention
	16.22	 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	References