Green Sustainable Process for Chemical and Environmental Engineering and Science: Supercritical Carbon Dioxide as Green Solvent

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GREEN SUSTAINABLE
PROCESS FOR
CHEMICAL AND
ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING AND
SCIENCE:
Supercritical Carbon Dioxide
as Green Solvent
Copyright
Contributors
1
Polymer production and processing using supercritical carbon dioxide
	Introduction
	Properties of supercritical CO2
	Applications of SCO2 in polymer production and processing
		Purification of polymers
		Impregnation and supercritical dyeing
		Particle production
		Polymer modification
	Polymer production
		Step-growth polymerization
		Chain growth polymerization
			Homogeneous polymerization
			Precipitation polymerization
			Dispersion polymerization
			Suspension polymerization
			Emulsion polymerization
	Polymer processing
		Plasticization of polymers
		Viscosity reduction
		Microcellular foam
		Polymer blending
	Future prospects
	Challenges ahead
	Conclusion
	References
2
Extraction of lipids from algae using supercritical carbon dioxide
	Introduction
	Lipid accumulation in microalgae
	Existing methods for lipid extraction from microalgae
		Folch and Bligh & Dyer extraction methods
		Superior solvents extraction method
		Expeller press and bead beating
		Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE)
		Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE)
		Osmotic shock
		Oxidative stress
		Electroporation
		Isotonic extraction method
		Enzymatic disruption
	Problems associated with currently available methods
	Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL)
	Supercritical fluid extraction
		Major advantages of supercritical fluid extraction
		Extraction of lipids from microalgae using supercritical carbon dioxide
		Application of supercritical fluid extraction
	Conclusions and future perspectives
	References
3
Extraction of catechins from green tea using supercritical carbon dioxide
	Introduction
	Green solvent
	Carbon dioxide as a green solvent
	Green tea composition and bioactives
		Decaffeination of green tea leaves
		Catechin
		Physical properties of catechin
		Chemical properties of catechin
		Biological potential of catechin
	Extraction techniques
		Conventional extraction
		Pressurized liquid extraction
		Microwave-assisted extraction
		Solid phase extraction
		Ultrasound-assisted extraction
		Aqueous two-phase extraction
		Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction
	Standardization of method
	Operating parameters
		Effect of temperature and pressure
		Effect of flow rate
		Effect of organic modifier
		Extraction time
		Particle size
		Drying time
		The water content in the supercritical fluid extraction
	Qualitative assessment
		Microbial aspects
	Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
4
Application of supercritical CO2 for enhanced oil recovery
	Introduction
	Aromatic plants and EOs
	Extraction methods
	Supercritical fluid extraction
	Factors affecting SFE
		Plant matrix
		Extraction operational conditions
		Strategies to improve extraction efficiency and selectivity
	Comparison of SFE-CO2 with other extraction techniques for oil recovery
	Conclusions
	References
5
Metal recovery using supercritical carbon dioxide
	Introduction
	Processes for recycling of WEEE
		Leaching of metals
		Supercritical fluids
			Experimental systems for the extraction of metals using supercritical fluids
			Recycling of WEEE using supercritical CO2 (ScCO2)
	Extraction of metal ions from aqueous solutions using ScCO2 in the presence of complexing agents
	Extraction of metals from solid and particulate matrices using ScCO2
	Conclusions
	References
	Further reading
6
Use of supercritical carbon dioxide in alkylation reactions
	Introduction
	Supercritical fluids as sustainable solvents
	Supercritical carbon dioxide as unique green solvent
		Unique properties of supercritical CO2
		Advantages of scCO2
		Disadvantages of scCO2
	Reaction with scCO2
	ScCO2 in alkylation reactions
		Friedel Craft's alkylation reaction
			Challenges in FC reaction
			Use of scCO2 in FC reaction
			Application of scCO2 in FC reactions of aromatic substrates
		Alkylation of olefins
		Allylic alkylation
		Transalkylation
		N-alkylation
		Alkylation of alcohols and phenols
	Conclusion
	References
7
Extraction of phytochemicals from saffron by supercritical carbon dioxide
	Introduction
	Extraction of saffron
	Supercritical CO2 system for saffron extraction
		Effect of sample condition on extraction performance
		Acceptable range of extraction conditions
		Optimization using RSM
		Purification of saffron extract
	Economic assessment on supercritical CO2 extraction of saffron
	Conclusion
	References
8
Extraction of bioactive compounds
	Introduction
	CO2 as supercritical fluid
	Supercritical carbon dioxide properties
		Thermodynamics proprieties
			Density
			Solubility
		Transport properties
	SC-CO2 extraction
	Bioactive compounds extraction by SC-CO2
		Fatty acids
		Essential oils
		Phenolic compounds
		Carotenoids
		Applications of bioactive compounds obtained from SC-CO2
	Considerations
	References
	Further reading
9
Extraction of propolis using supercritical carbon dioxide
	Introduction
	Propolis: Geographical origin and biological properties
	SFE using CO2
	Patents
	Conclusion
	References
10
Solubility of pharmaceutical compounds in supercritical carbon dioxide: Application, experimental, and mathematical modeling
	Introduction
		Crystal modification
			Application of SC-CO2 in polymorphism and polymorphic transformation
			Application of SC-CO2 in crystal polymorphs preparation by nonsolvent method
			Application of SC-CO2 as antisolvent in crystal polymorphs preparation (SEDS)
			Application of SC-CO2 in drug particle design
		Application of SC-CO2 in separation and reaction processes
	Solubility of pharmaceutics in SC-CO2
		Solubility measurement methods of solid solutes in supercritical solvent
			Static method
			Dynamic method
			Validity of the experimental values
		Solubility of pharmaceutical compounds in SC-CO2
		Application of cosolvent in drug extraction using SC-CO2
		SC-CO2 as antisolvent
	Solid solubility in SC-CO2 using EOSs
		Calculation of solids solubility in SCFs
		Solubility prediction of drug components using cubic EOS
			Peng-Robinson, Soave-Redlich-Kwong, and Petal-Taja-Valderrama as two and three parameters cubic EOSs
			Esmaeilzadeh and Roshanfekr EOS
			Kwak-Mansoori-PR EOS
			Pazuki et al. 1 (PAZ1) EOS
			Modified PR and Pazuki et al. 2 (PAZ2)
			Peng-Robinson-Stryjeck-Vera (PRSV)
			PR EOS for solvent/CO2/drug ternary system
		Solubility prediction of drug component using noncubic EOS
			Leonhard-Kraska (EOS)
			SAFT of variable range EOS
			Perturebed-chain polar statistical associating fluid theory
			Association-SRK EOS with quadruple effect (qCPA) EOS
		Solubility parameter-based models
			Solution model theory
		Mathematical models
			Association model for drug-CO2 system
			Association model for drug-cosolvent-CO2 system
			PR-COSMO-SAC model for drug solubility in SC-CO2 system
			PR-COSMO model for drug-cosolvent-CO2 system
			Activity coefficient model based on the COSMO method
			ANN system
			Molecular dynamics simulation
		Empirical correlations
			Comparative study 1
			Comparative study 2
	Conclusion
	References
11
Decaffeination using supercritical carbon dioxide
	Introduction
	Carbon dioxide as a green supercritical fluid
	Why extracting caffeine?
	Decaffeination by supercritical technology
		Batch process
		Semicontinuous and continuous processes
		Process parameters
			Temperature
			Pressure
			Time
			Solvent to feed mass ratio
			Cosolvent type and concentration
		Economic approach
		Life-cycle assessment approach
	Decaffeination of coffee
	Decaffeination of tea
	Decaffeination using carbon dioxide at industrial scale
	Future outlooks
	References
12
Supercritical fluids for the extraction of oleoresins and plant phenolics
	Introduction
	Oleoresins and plant phenolics
		Types of oleoresins
		Conventional extraction methods for oleoresins
		Classification of plant phenolics
		Identification and quantification of plant phenolics
	Supercritical extraction of oleoresins
		Solubility
		Sample pretreatment
			Particle size
			Moisture content
			Enzyme treatment
			Cosolvent
		Operating parameters
			Pressure and temperature
			Time
			Carbon dioxide flow rate
		Supercritical fluid extraction of oleoresin from selected plant samples
			Tomato oleoresin
			Flower oleoresin
				Marigold oleoresin
				Pyrethrum oleoresin
				Chamomile oleoresin
			Turmeric oleoresin
			Rosemary oleoresin
	Supercritical extraction of plant phenolics
		Operational conditions of supercritical fluid extraction of phenolic compounds
			Pressure
			Temperature
			Other factors
		Supercritical fluid extraction with cosolvent for phenolics compound
		Benefits and limitations of SFE in phenolic compounds extraction
		Perspective and future direction for SFE of phenolic compounds (assisted supercritical fluids technology)
			Enzyme-assisted supercritical fluid extraction
			Ultrasound-assisted supercritical fluid extraction
			High hydrostatic pressure supercritical fluid extraction
	Conclusion
	References
13
Applications of supercritical carbon dioxide in textile industry
	Introduction
	Characteristics of textile fibers
	Textile dyes
	Overview of the dyeing process
	Supercritical CO2
	Application of scCO2 to textile dyeing
	Overview of the scCO2 dyeing process
	Advantages of scCO2 in textile dyeing
	Effect of scCO2 on textile fibers
	Shrinkage behavior
	Plasticizing effect of CO2 on fiber polymer
	Glass transition temperature
	Factors affecting scCO2 dyeing
		Uniformity of dye distribution
		The use of dye mixtures for dyeing
	The washing step (postdyeing)
	Solubility of dyes in scCO2
	Dye distribution between fiber and CO2
	Mass transfer phenomena between fiber and CO2
	Supercritical dyeing of synthetic fibers
	Supercritical dyeing of natural fibers
	Fiber modification technologies
	Possibility for optimization
	Challenges and limitations of scCO2 dyeing
	Future prospects
	Conclusion
	References
14
Hydrogenation of fats and oils using supercritical carbon dioxide
	References
15
Extraction of bioactives from citrus
	Introduction
	Composition of citrus fruits
	Bioactives in citrus
		Phenolic compounds
			Flavonoids
			Essential oils
			Carotenoids
			Limonoids
	Health benefits of these bioactives
	Extraction of bioactive compounds from citrus
		Conventional methods
			Maceration
			Refluxing
		Nonconventional methods
			Ultrasound assisted extraction
			Microwave assisted extraction
			Enzyme-assisted extraction
			Supercritical CO2 extraction
	Utilization of citrus bioactives
	Conclusion
	References
16
Solubility of organic compounds in scCO2
	Suitability of CO2 as solvent for SCF
	Enhancing solubility in scCO2
	Use of models to correlate experimental solubility data
	Case studies of solubility of organic compounds in scCO2
	Amoxicillin
	Antiinflammatory drugs
	Artemisinin
	Anesthetics
	Cholesterol
	Dexamethasone
	Flurbiprofen
	Isoniazid
	2,2-Bipyridine and 4,4-dimethyl-2,2-bipyridine
	Amide compounds
	Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
	Maleic acid
	Menthol
	Methyl salicylate
	Phenacetin
	Oxymatrine
	Polyacrylamide
	1,4-Dimethoxybenzene
	Troeger's base
	Palmitic acid+capsaicin
	Phenol and pyrocatechol
	2H-chromene derivatives
	Fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K
	Disperse dyes
	Anthracene, phenanthrene, and carbazole mixture
	6-Caprolactam
	Solubility of energetic materials in SCFs
	Extraction of metal ions
	Catalysis in scCO2
	Palladium-catalyzed C-C coupling reactions
	Hydrogenation and hydroformylation
	Asymmetric hydrogenation (AH)
	Polymerization solvent
		Homogeneous polymerization
		Heterogeneous polymerization
		Oxidation
		Diels-Alder reaction
		Free-radical reactions
		Use of ionic liquids (ILs) or H2O along with scCO2 for catalysis
		Enzymes
		Other reactions in scCO2
		Extraction
		Supercritical fluid nucleation
		Dyeing
	Summary
	References
17
Supercritical fluid based extraction of marigold principles
	Introduction
	Marigold carotenoids
	Extraction of Marigold carotenoids
	SFE of Marigold carotenoids
	SFE of faradiol esters from Marigold
	SFE of Marigold oleoresin
	SFE of Marigold phenolic bioactives
	SFE of Marigold essential oil
	Conclusion and future prospectus
	References
18
Industrial polymer synthesis using supercritical carbon dioxide
	Introduction
	Supercritical carbon dioxide as the polymerization solvent
	Polymers synthesized using supercritical carbon dioxide
		Biopolymers
		Electrochemical synthesis of conducting polymers
		Synthesis of polyamides
		Synthesis of polycarbonates
		Synthesis of fluoropolymers
		Synthesis of core-shell polymers
		Synthesis of polymer nanocomposites
	Conclusions
	References
19
Organometallic compounds solubility in supercritical carbon dioxide (SCCO2): Measurement techniques, variables affecting s ...
	Introduction
	Organometallic compounds
	Supercritical carbon dioxide (SCCO2)
	Solubility
		Solubility measurement techniques
			Dynamic technique
			Static techniques
		Variables affecting organometallic compounds solubility in SCCO2
	Literature review of organometallic compounds solubility in SCCO2
	Thermodynamic modeling
		Model based on regular solution theory
		Empirical models
		Equations of state (EOSs)
	Conclusions
	References
Index
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	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	Y
	Z
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