Greek: A History of the Language and its Speakers

GREEK: A HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE AND ITS SPEAKERS, SECOND EDITION......Page 5
Contents......Page 7
Preface to the First Edition......Page 14
Preface to the Second Edition......Page 17
IPA Chart......Page 19
The Greek Alphabet......Page 20
Introduction: The Scope and Purpose of This Book......Page 23
PART I: Ancient Greek: From Mycenae to the Roman Empire......Page 29
1.1 The Coming of the ‘Greeks’ to Greece......Page 31
1.2 The Earliest Records: Mycenaean Greek......Page 32
1.3 Greek Dialect Relations and the Place of Mycenaean......Page 35
1.4.1 Some basic dialect characteristics......Page 46
(a) Laconian (Sparta, Peloponnesian Doric)......Page 50
(b) Cretan (Gortyn, Peloponnesian Doric)......Page 51
(c) Elean (Olympia, North-West Greek)......Page 52
(d) Phocian (Delphi, North-West Greek)......Page 53
(a) Boeotian (Thebes)......Page 54
(b) Thessalian (Matropolis in western Thessaly)......Page 55
(c) Lesbian (Mytilene)......Page 56
(a) Arcadian (Mantinea)......Page 58
(b) Ionic......Page 59
(c) Attic......Page 62
2.1 Introduction......Page 65
2.2.1 Ionian epic......Page 66
2.2.2 Ionian elegy and iambus......Page 71
2.2.3 Personal lyric......Page 72
2.2.4 Choral lyric......Page 75
2.2.5 Athenian drama......Page 78
2.3 Official and Literary Ionic......Page 82
3.1 Attic as a Literary Standard......Page 89
3.2 ‘Great Attic’ as an Administrative Language......Page 95
4.1 Introduction......Page 101
4.2 The Koine as an Extension of Great Attic......Page 102
4.3 The Impact and Status of the Koine......Page 105
4.4.2 Koineization: the case of Boeotian......Page 106
4.4.3 Doric koines: Tsakonian......Page 109
4.5 The Koine in the Hellenistic Kingdoms......Page 110
4.6.1 Introduction......Page 111
4.6.2 Macedonian Koine: the development of infinitival constructions......Page 112
4.6.3 The articular infinitive......Page 116
4.7.1 Introduction......Page 118
4.7.2 Historiography: Polybius......Page 119
4.7.4 Reaction against the Koine: Hellenistic poetry......Page 120
4.7.5 Reaction against the Koine: Asianism and Atticism......Page 121
4.7.6 Popular literature: romances......Page 122
4.7.7 Drama: the ‘new’ Attic comedy and the mime......Page 123
4.7.8 Jewish literature: the Septuagint......Page 128
4.8 Clitic Pronouns and the Shift Towards VS Word Order......Page 130
4.9 Analogical Pressure on the Strong Aorist Paradigm......Page 131
4.10.1 Introduction......Page 132
4.10.2 Egypt......Page 133
4.10.3 Asia Minor......Page 135
4.11.1 Introduction: datives, future priphrases, the nom-acc plural of consonant-stems......Page 136
4.11.2 Phonological developments......Page 139
4.11.3 Other morphological developments: partial merger of the 1st and 3rd declensions......Page 142
4.12 Conclusion......Page 144
5.1 Roman Domination......Page 146
5.2 The Fate of Greek......Page 147
5.3 The Impact of Bilingualism: Greek and Latin in Contact......Page 148
5.4 Roman Attitudes to Greek Culture......Page 154
5.5 Atticism and the Second Sophistic......Page 155
5.6 Atticist Grammars and Lexica: Aelius Aristides......Page 159
5.7 The Official Koine in the Roman Republican Period......Page 163
5.8 Past-Tense Morphology......Page 165
5.9 Official Writing of the Roman Imperial Period......Page 166
5.10.1 Epictetus......Page 168
5.10.2 The New Testament......Page 169
5.11.1 The Apostolic Fathers......Page 174
5.11.2 The impact of Atticism......Page 177
5.11.3 Callinicus and Theodoret......Page 178
6.2 Summary of the Principal Developments in the Vowel System......Page 182
6.3.1 Athenian Attic......Page 185
6.3.2 Egyptian Koine......Page 187
6.4 The Development of the Consonant System......Page 192
6.5.1 Letter 1: clitic pronouns and word order, control verbs with ϊνα ['ina]-complements......Page 194
6.5.2 Letter 2: ‘short’ 2nd-declension forms, the merger of aorist and perfect......Page 196
6.5.3 Letter 3: the decline of 3rd-declension participles......Page 200
6.5.4 Letter 4: the decline of the dative......Page 205
6.6 Conclusion......Page 209
PART II: Byzantium: From Constantine I to Mehmet the Conqueror......Page 211
7.1 The Later Roman Empire......Page 213
7.2 The Age of Transition: Ioustinianós and the Arab Conquests......Page 216
7.3 The Middle Byzantine Period: Iconoclasm, Renaissance and Decline......Page 219
7.4 The Late Byzantine Period: Stabilization, Defeat and Fall......Page 222
8.2 Greek and Other Languages in the Early Byzantine Period......Page 229
8.3 The Prestige of Greek......Page 232
8.4.1 Introduction......Page 234
8.4.2 Byzantine Atticism......Page 235
8.4.3 The first experiments with the vernacular......Page 236
8.4.4 The vernacular literature of the 14th and 15th centuries......Page 238
8.4.5 The romances......Page 239
8.4.6 Other vernacular material......Page 241
8.5.2 Academic and ecclesiastical Greek......Page 242
8.5.3 Official and administrative Greek......Page 243
8.5.5 Chronicles......Page 244
8.5.6 Christian exegetical literature and hagiography......Page 247
8.5.7 A new written standard in the later empire......Page 248
8.6 The Balkan Sprachbund: Future Formations......Page 249
8.7 Conclusion......Page 251
9.2 The Early Period: Prokópios (First Half of the 6th Century)......Page 253
9.3 The Middle Period: Michaél Psellós (1018–78 or 1096)......Page 255
9.4 The Modal Imperfect......Page 259
9.5 The Late Period: Anna Komnené (1083–c.1153)......Page 260
9.6 After the Fall: Michaél Kritóboulos (15th Century)......Page 262
9.7 Conclusion......Page 264
10.1 Introduction......Page 266
10.2.1 Malálas (c. 491–c.578): generics......Page 267
10.2.2 Theophánes the Confessor (c.760–818)......Page 273
10.3.1 Ioánnes Móschos (c.550–619)......Page 275
10.3.2 St Germanós (c.640–733)......Page 278
10.4.1 Konstantínos VII Porphyrogénnetos (905–59)......Page 280
10.4.2 Kekauménos (11th century)......Page 284
10.5 The Metaphrases of the Palaiologan Period......Page 286
10.6 Academic Greek in the Late Period: Máximos Planoúdes (c.1255–c.1305)......Page 290
10.7 Official Greek of the Later Empire......Page 292
10.8 Conclusion......Page 293
11.1 Introduction......Page 295
11.2 The Completion of Sound Changes Beginning in Antiquity......Page 296
11.4 Old and New Patterns of Subordination: Clitic Pronouns and VSO Order......Page 299
11.6 Later Phonetic and Phonological Developments......Page 303
11.7.1 The dative case, prepositional phrases......Page 306
11.7.2 Feminine nouns of the 1st declension: paradigm standardization......Page 307
11.7.4 Interplay between the 1st and 3rd declensions: imparisyllabic paradigms......Page 308
11.7.5 Neuters......Page 310
11.7.7 Adjectives......Page 311
(a) Indefinite pronouns......Page 314
(c) Relative pronouns......Page 315
(d) Demonstrative pronouns......Page 317
11.8.1 The infinitive......Page 318
11.8.2 Participles......Page 319
11.8.3 Futures and conditionals, pluperfects and perfects......Page 320
11.8.4 The spread of k-aorists: the aorist passive......Page 324
(a) The fate of the -μι [-mi] verbs......Page 325
(b) Nasal suffixes......Page 327
(c) The suffixes -άζω [-'azo]/-ίζω [-'izo]......Page 329
(d) The suffix &#-949;νω [-'evo] and its influence: verbs in -πτω [-pto]......Page 334
(e) The contract verbs......Page 335
11.8.6 Personal endings......Page 338
(a) Indicative and subjunctive......Page 339
( b ) Past-tense morphology: active and aorist middle/passive; the augment......Page 340
(c) The active paradigm: present tense......Page 341
(e) The middle/passive paradigm: the imperfect......Page 342
11.9 Conclusion......Page 345
12.1.2 The Protobulgarian inscriptions......Page 347
12.1.3 Acclamations: origins of the ‘political’ verse form......Page 349
12.2.1 The epic of Digenés Akrítes......Page 355
12.2.2 Ptochopródromos......Page 359
12.3.1 The original romances of the Palaiologan period......Page 364
12.3.2 Greek–Romance contact: perfects/pluperfects, negative polarity, clitics......Page 367
12.3.3 The Chronicle of the Morea......Page 371
12.3.4 The translated romances......Page 379
12.4.1 Introduction......Page 382
12.4.2 Early dialect literature in Cyprus: Machairás’ chronicle......Page 384
12.4.3 Early vernacular literature in Crete......Page 388
12.5 Conclusion......Page 390
PART III: Modern Greek: From the Ottoman Empire to the European Union......Page 393
13.1 The Early Years......Page 395
13.2 Ottoman Decline......Page 396
13.3 Revolution and Independence......Page 399
14.1 The Impact of Turkish......Page 401
14.2.1 Introduction: diversification, and the basis for a modern spoken standard......Page 403
14.2.2 Local vernaculars in the central region; Sofianós’ grammar and the educated standard......Page 406
14.2.3 Greek in the west: the South Italian dialects......Page 410
14.2.4 Greek in the south and south-east: the Dodecanese, Cyprus and Crete......Page 413
14.2.5 Greek in the east: Pontus and Cappadocia......Page 420
14.2.6 The northern dialects......Page 426
14.3 Popular Culture in the Turkish Period: The Folk Songs......Page 428
15.1 Continuity......Page 435
15.2 The Impact of the Enlightenment......Page 441
15.3 Contemporary ‘Demotic’......Page 445
15.4 The Roots of the ‘Language Question’......Page 448
16.1 Irredentism: Triumph and Disaster......Page 450
16.2 Dictatorship and War......Page 453
16.3 Recovery, the Colonels and the Restoration of Democracy......Page 455
17.1 Koraís......Page 460
17.2 The Roots of Demoticism: Solomós and the Ionian Islands......Page 464
17.3 The Rise of Katharévousa......Page 467
17.4 Reaction: Psycháris and the Demoticist Programme......Page 468
17.5 The Progress of Demoticism......Page 476
17.6 The 20th Century: Crisis and Resolution......Page 478
17.7 Standard Modern Greek......Page 484
17.8 A Range of Styles......Page 488
Bibliography......Page 493
Index......Page 515