Graphene Quantum Dots: Biomedical and Environmental Sustainability Applications

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Graphene Quantum Dots: Biomedical and Environmental Sustainability Applications
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List of contributors
Preface
1. Graphene and its quantum dots: fabrication and properties
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Fabrication of graphene and its quantum dots
	1.3 Relative properties of graphene quantum dots
		1.3.1 Morphological and structural elucidation
		1.3.2 Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS)
		1.3.3 Chemical study of nitrogen (N)- doping
		1.3.4 Optical analysis
			1.3.4.1 pH-dependent properties
			1.3.4.2 Computational PL theory
			1.3.4.3 Up-conversion PL emission
			1.3.4.4 Temperature-dependent PL
		1.3.5 Photoelectrochemical (PEC) cell
		1.3.6 Cytotoxicity assay
			1.3.6.1 GQDs versus CdTe and CdS semiconductor QDs
			1.3.6.2 GQDs versus C60 QDs
			1.3.6.3 Fluorescent GQDs
			1.3.6.4 GQDs versus surface-passivated GQDs
	1.4 Conclusion and future prospects
	References
2. Graphene quantum dots characterization and surface modification
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 GQDs characterization
		2.2.1 Optical characterizations
			2.2.1.1 UV-Vis spectroscopy
			2.2.1.2 Raman spectroscopy
			2.2.1.3 Photoluminescence
		2.2.2 Microscopy characterization
			2.2.2.1 Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
			2.2.2.2 Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
		2.2.3 Surface state characterization
			2.2.3.1 Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (FTIR)
			2.2.3.2 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)
	2.3 Surface modifications
		2.3.1 Tunable through size
		2.3.2 Doping of GQDs with heteroatoms
			2.3.2.1 Single heteroatom
			2.3.2.2 Double heteroatoms
	2.4 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
3. Graphene quantum dots application in bacterial and viral pathogen disinfection
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 What are quantum dots?
	3.3 Graphene quantum dots (GQDs): structure, synthesis, and Characteristics
		3.3.1 Synthesis of GQDs
			3.3.1.1 Top to down approach
				Hydrothermal process
				Solvothermal method
				Lithography process
				Exfoliation using “nanotomy” technique
				Electrochemical method used to scissor graphene sheets
			3.3.1.2 Bottom-up approaches
				Precursors pyrolysis
				Step-by-step synthetic route
				Decomposition of fullerene
	3.4 GQDs for water treatment
	3.5 GQD nanostructures for reduction of heavy metals and water disinfection
	3.6 Mechanism
	3.7 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
4. Microbial sensing and antimicrobial properties of graphene quantum dots
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 GQDs for bacterial sensing
		4.2.1 Antimicrobial property of carbon dots
		4.2.2 Potential of CDs for combating bacteria
		4.2.3 Combination with other antimicrobial reagents
		4.2.4 Potential of CDs for combating the virus
		4.2.5 GQDs application in wound pathogen disinfection
	4.3 The live cells real-time molecular tracking by GQD
	4.4 Conclusion
	References
5. Graphene quantum dots for drug biodistribution and pharmacokinetics
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Graphene quantum dots
	5.3 Synthesis of GQDs
		5.3.1 Chemical oxidation method
		5.3.2 Hydrothermal method
		5.3.3 Ultrasound assisted method
	5.4 Applications of GQDs
	5.5 Drug delivery methods
		5.5.1 Fluorescent graphene quantum dots application
		5.5.2 Long-term biodistribution
		5.5.3 Biodistribution and toxicology of carboxylated graphene quantum dots
	5.6 Critical issues
	References
6. Graphene quantum dots: application in biomedical science
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Applications of GQDs in biomedical sciences
		6.2.1 Immunological assay based on GQDs
			6.2.1.1 Electrochemical immunosensors
			6.2.1.2 Amperometric immunosensors
			6.2.1.3 Other types of immunosensors
	6.3 GQD-based platforms for drug delivery
	6.4 Bioimaging applications of GQDs
		6.4.1 Fluorescence imaging
	6.5 Toxicity of GQD materials
	6.6 Conclusion
	References
7. Graphene quantum dot application in water purification
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 The worldwide water crisis
		7.2.1 Source of water pollution and impact on life
	7.3 Graphene quantum dot (GQD)
		7.3.1 GQDs application
		7.3.2 GQD for organic pollutants degradation
		7.3.3 Microbial and heavy metal load reduction by graphene quantum dot
		7.3.4 Membrane filter based on graphene quantum dot
	7.4 Conclusion
	References
8. Graphene-based organic-inorganic hybrid quantum dots for organic pollutants treatment
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Synthesis of quantum dots (GQDs)
		8.2.1 Synthesis of (GQDs) using pyrocatechol
		8.2.2 Graphene quantum dot using citric acid coated with iron codoped TiO2
		8.2.3 Preparation of graphene quantum dots (GQDs) using spent tea
		8.2.4 Synthesis of graphene quantum dots by using ground coffee
		8.2.5 Synthesis of rice husk derived GQDs
		8.2.6 Synthesis of lignin-based graphene quantum dots [39]
		8.2.7 Synthesis of N, S codoped commercial TiO2/GQDs [40]
		8.2.8 Development of CdS/GQDs using g-C3N4 nanosheet
		8.2.9 Synthesis of metal free N dopped carbon quantum dots
		8.2.10 Synthesis of GQDs using graphene oxide (GO)
	8.3 Application for the removal of organic pollutants
	8.4 Proposed mechanisms
		8.4.1 Photocatalytic activity of ZnO-GQD
		8.4.2 Degradation of MO and MB
		8.4.3 Degradation of New Fuchsin dye [63]
		8.4.4 Photodegradation of dye rhodamine-B RhB catalyzed by GQD
		8.4.5 Pathway proposed for catalytic oxidative degradation of amines on dimethylamino functionalized graphene dot (GQD-DMA)
	8.5 Conclusions and prospects
	References
9. Graphene quantum dots for heavy metal detection and removal
	9.1 Introduction
		9.1.1 Background
		9.1.2 Outlook for GQDs
	9.2 Common methods used for the synthesis of GQDs
		9.2.1 Bottom-up approach
			9.2.1.1 Hydrothermal method
			9.2.1.2 Hydrothermal method using microwave
			9.2.1.3 Soft-template method
			9.2.1.4 Metal-catalyzed method
		9.2.2 Top-down methods
			9.2.2.1 Liquid exfoliation method
			9.2.2.2 Electron beam lithography method
	9.3 Applications of GQDs
		9.3.1 Medical applications
		9.3.2 Optical applications
		9.3.3 Energy-related applications
		9.3.4 Heavy metal detection and removal
	9.4 Conclusions
	References
10. Graphene quantum dots for clean energy solutions
	10.1 Introduction
		10.1.1 Challenges of clean energy
		10.1.2 Clean energy solution
	10.2 Theoretical background
		10.2.1 Quantum dots background and creation of graphene QDs
		10.2.2 The outlooks of graphene quantum dots
	10.3 Methods for the synthesis of GQDs
		10.3.1 Top-down approach
			10.3.1.1 Acid etching
			10.3.1.2 Electrochemical (EC) exfoliation
			10.3.1.3 Hydrothermal and solvothermal
			10.3.1.4 Ultrasonication
		10.3.2 Bottom-up approach
			10.3.2.1 Carbonization
			10.3.2.2 Microwave-assisted hydrothermal (MAH) method
		10.3.3 Green approach
	10.4 Physicochemical properties
		10.4.1 Electronic properties
		10.4.2 Doping
	10.5 Applications of GQDs in energy storage and conversion devices
		10.5.1 Supercapacitors
		10.5.2 Lithium-ion batteries
		10.5.3 Solar cells
			10.5.3.1 Dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC)
	10.6 Summary and perspective
	Acknowledgments
	References
11. Graphene quantum dots for optical application
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Functionalization of graphene quantum dots
	11.3 Applications of graphene quantum dots
		11.3.1 Optical applications
	References
12. Graphene quantum dots and their role in environmental sustainability
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Synthesis of biomass derived graphene quantum dot
	12.3 Applications of GQDs with special attention to environment sustainability
		12.3.1 Sensing/detection
			12.3.1.1 Photoluminescence sensor
			12.3.1.2 Electrochemiluminescence
			12.3.1.3 Gas sensor
			12.3.1.4 Humidity sensor
			12.3.1.5 Electrochemical sensor
		12.3.2 Role of GQDs for future energy solutions
			12.3.2.1 Supercapacitor
			12.3.2.2 Batteries
			12.3.2.3 Photovoltaic devices/solar cells
		12.3.3 Catalytic applications
	12.4 Summary
	References
Index
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