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دانلود کتاب Grainger & Allison’s Diagnostic Radiology. A Textbook of Medical Imaging

دانلود کتاب رادیولوژی تشخیصی گرینگر و آلیسون. کتاب درسی تصویربرداری پزشکی

Grainger & Allison’s Diagnostic Radiology. A Textbook of Medical Imaging

مشخصات کتاب

Grainger & Allison’s Diagnostic Radiology. A Textbook of Medical Imaging

ویرایش: [Volume 1, 7 ed.] 
نویسندگان: , , ,   
سری:  
ISBN (شابک) : 9780702075247 
ناشر: Elsevier 
سال نشر: 2021 
تعداد صفحات: [2218] 
زبان: English 
فرمت فایل : PDF (درصورت درخواست کاربر به PDF، EPUB یا AZW3 تبدیل می شود) 
حجم فایل: 1 Gb 

قیمت کتاب (تومان) : 51,000



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فهرست مطالب

Cover
Grainger & Allison’s Diagnostic Radiology
Copyright Page
Table Of Contents
Preface
List of Section Editors
List of Contributors
Dedication
SECTION A The Chest and Cardiovascular
System
	1 Current Status of Thoracic Imaging
		Chapter Outline
		Chest Radiography
			Equipment Considerations
			Radiographic Projections
			Portable Chest Radiography
			Novel Radiographic Techniques
		Computed Tomography of the Thorax
			Principles
			From Single-Slice to Multidetector Computed Tomography
			High-Resolution Computed Tomography
			Intravenous Contrast Medium Enhancement and Timing of Computed Tomography Acquisition
			Additional Postprocessing Techniques
			Dual-Energy Computed Tomography
			Computed Tomography Dose Considerations
			Low-Dose Computed Tomography
		Ultrasound
			Endoscopic and Endobronchial Ultrasound
		Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		Radionuclide Imaging
			Ventilation–Perfusion Scintigraphy
			Positron Emission Tomography
		Further Reading
	2 The Normal Chest
		Chapter Outline
		The Lungs
		The Central Airways
		The Lungs Beyond the Hila
		The Hila
		The Mediastinum
			Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Radiographic Appearances
				Junction Lines
				Right Mediastinum Above the Azygos Vein
				Left Mediastinum Above the Aortic Arch
				Trachea and Retrotracheal Area in the Lateral View
				Supra-Aortic Mediastinum on the Lateral View
				Right Middle Mediastinal Border Below the Azygos Arch
				Left Cardiac Border Below the Aortic Arch
				Paraspinal Lines
				Retrosternal Line
		The Diaphragm
		Further Reading
	3 The Chest Wall, Pleura, Diaphragm and Intervention
		Chapter Outline
		The Chest Wall
			Soft Tissues
				Breasts
				Muscles
				Soft-Tissue Calcification
				Subcutaneous Emphysema
			Bony Structures
				Ribs
				Sternum
				Clavicles
				Scapula
				Spine
			Chest Wall Tumours
				Soft-Tissue Tumours
				Bone Tumours
		The Pleura
			Pleural Effusion
				Imaging Pleural Effusion
					Chest Radiograph
						Free pleural fluid.
						Loculated (encysted, encapsulated) pleural fluid.
						Pleural effusion in the supine patient.
					Ultrasound
					Computed Tomography
					Magnetic Resonance Imaging
					Positron-Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography
				Some Specific Pleural Effusions
					Exudates and Transudates
					Empyema
					Chylothorax
					Haemothorax
					Hepatic Hydrothorax
					Bronchopleural Fistula
			Pneumothorax
				Imaging Pneumothorax
					Chest Radiography
						Typical Signs.
						Atypical Signs
				Ultrasound
				Computed Tomography
				Primary Spontaneous Pneumothorax
				Secondary Spontaneous Pneumothorax
				Complications
					Haemopneumothorax
					Tension Pneumothorax
					Pyopneumothorax
					Adhesions
					Reexpansion Oedema
			Pleural Thickening and Tumours
				Imaging Pleural Thickening and Tumours
					Chest Radiography
					Ultrasound
					Computed Tomography
					Magnetic Resonance Imaging
					Positron-Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography
				Pleural Plaques
					Diffuse Pleural Disease
					Pleural Tumours
					Pleural Fibroma
					Pleural Lipoma
					Malignant Mesothelioma (Primary Pleural Malignancy)
					Pleural Metastases (Secondary Pleural Malignancy)
					Tumour-Like Conditions of the Pleura
					Pleural Calcification
			Intervention
				Chest Wall Intervention
				Pleural Intervention
					Pleural Aspiration
					Chest Drains
					Pleural Biopsy
					Complications of Image-Guided Pleural Intervention
						Intercostal artery injury.
						Iatrogenic pneumothorax.
						Iatrogenic infection.
		Diaphragm
			Imaging the Diaphragm
				Chest Radiograph
				Ultrasound
				Computed Tomography
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Eventration
				Movement and Paralysis
				Diaphragmatic Hernias
				Diaphragmatic Trauma
				Neoplasms of the Diaphragm
		Further Reading
			Classic Books/Articles
			Recent Journal Articles
	4 The Mediastinum, Including the Pericardium
		Chapter Outline
		Mediastinal Diseases
			Mediastinal Masses
				Incidence
				Imaging Techniques
					Radiography
					Computed Tomography
					Magnetic Resonance Imaging
					Ultrasound
					Radionuclide Examinations
				Approach to Mediastinal Masses
					Localise to the Mediastinum
					Localise Within the Mediastinum
					Characterise on Computed Tomography or Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Thyroid Masses
				Parathyroid Masses
				Thymic Tumours
					Thymomas
					Thymic Carcinoma
					Thymic Neuroendocrine Tumour (Thymic Carcinoid)
					Thymolipomas
				Lymphofollicular Thymic Hyperplasia and Rebound Thymic Hyperplasia
				Thymic Cyst
				Germ-Cell Tumours of the Mediastinum
					Teratomas
					Seminoma
					Non-Seminomatous Germ-Cell Tumours
				Mediastinal Lymphadenopathy
					Malignant Lymphoma and Leukaemia
					Lymph Node Calcification
					Low-Attenuation Nodes
					Enhancing Lymph Nodes
					Lymph Node Enlargement
						Sarcoidosis.
						Tuberculosis and histoplasmosis.
						Metastatic carcinoma.
						Reactive hyperplasia.
						Thoracic lymphadenopathy in AIDS.
				Foregut Duplication Cysts
					Bronchogenic Cysts
					Oesophageal Duplication Cysts
					Neurenteric Cysts
				Mediastinal Pancreatic Pseudocyst
				Neurogenic Tumours
					Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumours
					Sympathetic Ganglion Tumours
					Mediastinal Paragangliomas
					Lateral Thoracic Meningocele
					Extramedullary Haematopoiesis
				Mesenchymal Tumours and Tumour-Like Conditions
					Lymphangiomas (Cystic Hygromas)
					Haemangiomas
					Fatty Lesions in the Mediastinum
					Mediastinal Lipomatosis
					Fatty Tumours of the Mediastinum
				Fat-Containing Hernias
			Other Mediastinal Lesions
				Acute Mediastinitis
				Fibrosing Mediastinitis
				Mediastinal Haemorrhage
				Pneumomediastinum
		Pericardium
			Imaging Pericardial Disease
			Developmental Anomalies
				Congenital Absence of the Pericardium
				Pericardial Cysts
			Acquired Pericardial Disease
				Pericardial Effusion
				Cardiac Tamponade
				Pericarditis
				Constrictive Pericarditis
				Pericardial Neoplasms
		Acknowledgement
		Further Reading
	5 Pulmonary Infection in Adults
		Chapter Outline
		Types of Pneumonias
			Community-Acquired Pneumonia (CAP) (Box 5.1)
			Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia (HAP)
			Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia (VAP)
			Health Care–Associated Pneumonia (HCAP)
			Aspiration Pneumonia
		Clinical Utility and Limitations of Chest Radiography and Computed Tomography
			Computed Tomography
		Patterns of Pulmonary Infection
		Complications of Pneumonia
		Integrating Clinical and Imaging Findings
			Lobar Pneumonia
				Most Common Organisms
					Streptococcus pneumoniae.
					Klebsiella.
					Legionella sp.
					Chlamydia.
					Moraxella catarrhalis.
				Immunocompromised Host
					Nocardia sp.
					Actinomyces sp.
				Endemic in Certain Geographic Areas
					Coxiella burnetii (Rickettsial Pneumonia).
					Francisella tularensis.
			Bronchopneumonia
				Most Common Organisms
					Staphylococcus aureus.
					Escherichia coli.
					Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
					Haemophilus influenzae.
				Atypical Pneumonia
					Mycoplasma pneumoniae.
				Viral
					Influenza A.
					Adenovirus.
					Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV).
					Epstein–Barr virus (EBV).
					Varicella-zoster virus.
					Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV 1).
					Hantaviruses.
					Cytomegalovirus (CMV).
				New Emerging Viruses
					Human metapneumovirus (hMPV).
					Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus.
					Middle East respiratory syndrome.
					Avian flu (H5N1).
					Swine influenza (H1N1).
		Changing Spectrum of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infections: 40 Years Later
			Mycobacterium tuberculosis
				Primary Tuberculosis
				Reactivation and Reinfection Tuberculosis
			Pulmonary Non-Tuberculous Mycobacteria (NTMB)
			Fungal Infection
				Aspergillus Infection
				Candidiasis
				Pneumocystis jiroveci
				Mucormycosis
				Cryptococcosis
				Histoplasmosis
				Coccidioidomycosis
				Paracoccidioidomycosis (South American Blastomycosis)
				North American Blastomycosis
		Parasitic Infections
			Protozoa
				Amoebiasis
				Malaria
			Nematodes
				Dirofilariasis
				Ascariasis
				Strongyloidiasis
				Trypanosomiasis
				Cysticercosis
				Toxocariasis
			Cestodes
				Echinococcosis (Hydatid Disease)
			Trematodes
				Paragonimiasis
				Schistosomiasis
		Further Reading
	6 Large Airway Disease and Chronic Airflow Obstruction
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
		Tracheal Disorders
			Post-Traumatic Strictures
			Infectious Tracheobronchitis
			Primary Malignant Neoplasms
			Secondary Malignant Neoplasms
			Benign Neoplasms
			Wegener Granulomatosis
			Relapsing Polychondritis
			Tracheobronchial Amyloidosis
			Sarcoidosis
			Inflammatory Bowel Disease
			Tracheobronchopathia Osteochondroplastica
			Sabre-Sheath Trachea
			Tracheobronchomegaly (Mounier-Kuhn Disease)
			Tracheobronchomalacia
			Tracheobronchial Fistula and Dehiscence
		Bronchiectasis
			Radiographic Findings
			Computed Tomographic Findings
			Accuracy of Computed Tomography
			Cystic Fibrosis
			Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis
			Diskinetic Cilia Syndrome
		Broncholithiasis
		Obliterative (Constrictive) Bronchiolitis
			Pathological Features
			Radiological Findings
			Computed Tomography Assessment of Air Trapping
		Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
			Pathological Findings
			Radiographic Findings
			Computed Tomographic Findings
				Visually Defined Computed Tomography Pattern of Emphysema
				Visually Defined Computed Tomography Patterns of Airway Diseases
				Associated Features
			Quantitative Computed Tomography Image Analysis
				Quantitative Analysis of Emphysema Extent
				Quantitative Computed Tomography Analysis of Gas Trapping
				Quantitative Analysis of Airway Dimensions
		Asthma
			Radiographic Findings
			Computed Tomography Findings
			Quantitative Computed Tomography Imaging of Airways in Asthma
		Further Reading
	7 Pulmonary Lobar Collapse
		Chapter Outline
		Mechanisms and Causes of Lobar Collapse
		Radiographic Considerations
			Direct Signs of Volume Loss
			Indirect Signs of Volume Loss
			Ancillary Features of Lobar Collapse
		Computed Tomography of Lobar Collapse
			Technique
			Utility
			Potential Pitfalls
		Other Imaging Techniques in Lobar Collapse
		Patterns of Lobar Collapse
			Right Upper Lobe Collapse
			Left Upper Lobe Collapse
			Right Middle Lobe Collapse
			Right and Left Lower Lobe Collapse
			Whole Lung Collapse
			Combinations of Lobar Collapse
		Further Reading
	8 Pulmonary Neoplasms
		Chapter Outline
		Histopathology
			Treatment-Predictive Biomarkers
				Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor
				KRAS
				Anaplastic Lymphoma Kinase
				ROS1
				BRAF
				Programmed Cell Death Ligand 1
				Re-biopsy
			Lung Cancer and Other Environmental Factors
				Smoking
				Passive Smoking
				General Environmental Pollutants
				Asbestos
				Radon
			Lung Cancer Screening
				Chest Radiographic Screening
				Computed Tomography Screening
				Radiation Dose Considerations
				The Future of Screening
			Pulmonary Nodules
				Management of Small Pulmonary Nodules
				Nodule Size and Growth Rate
				Location, Shape and Morphology
				Nodule Contour
				Nodule Density
				Subsolid Nodules
				Pericystic Tumours
			Other Forms of Nodule Assessment
				Nodule Enhancement
				Positron Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography
				Tissue Sampling
			Lung Cancer Staging—the 8Th Edition of the TNM Staging System
				Additional Pulmonary Nodules in the Presence of Lung Cancer
				N Descriptors
				M Descriptors
				Small Cell Lung Cancer
				Bronchopulmonary Carcinoid Tumour
				Summary
			Imaging Protocols for Lung Cancer Staging
				The Current Standards of Computer Tomography Technology
			Imaging Features of Bronchogenic Carcinoma
				Peripheral Tumours
					Tumour Shape and Margins
					Cavitation
					Calcification
					Other Findings
				Central Tumours
					Collapse/Consolidation in Association With Central Tumours
				Staging Intrathoracic Spread of Bronchial Carcinoma
					Hilar Enlargement
					Mediastinal Invasion
					Chest Wall Invasion
					Pleural Involvement
					Summary
				Extrathoracic Staging of Lung Cancer
		Pulmonary Sarcoma and Other Primary Malignant Neoplasms
		Benign Pulmonary Tumours
			Hamartoma
			Other Benign Pulmonary Neoplasms
				Leiomyoma
				Inflammatory Myofibroblastic Tumour
				Sclerosing Haemangioma
				Squamous Papillomas
		Benign Lymphoproliferative Disorders
			Lymphocytic Interstitial Pneumonia
			Follicular Bronchiolitis
		Malignant Lymphoproliferative Disorders
			Lymphoma
				Other Findings in Pulmonary Lymphoma
			Leukaemia
		Metastases
			Lymphangitic Carcinomatosis
			Unusual Patterns of Metastatic Cancer
				Endobronchial Metastases
				Miliary Metastases
				Tumour Emboli
		Further Reading
	9 High-Resolution Computed Tomography of Interstitial and Occupational Lung Disease
		Chapter Outline
		High-Resolution Computed Tomography Patterns of Diffuse Lung Disease
			Reticular Pattern
			Nodular Pattern
			Mosaic Attenuation Pattern
			Cystic Pattern
		Idiopathic Interstitial Pneumonias
			Usual Interstitial Pneumonia/Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis
				Classical HRCT Findings
			Non-Specific Interstitial Pneumonia
				Classical HRCT Findings
			Cryptogenic Organising Pneumonia
			Respiratory Bronchiolitis–Interstitial Lung Disease and Desquamative Interstitial Pneumonia
				Classical HRCT Findings
			Acute Interstitial Pneumonia/Diffuse Alveolar Damage
				Classical HRCT Findings
			Lymphoid Interstitial Pneumonia
				Classical HRCT Findings
			Idiopathic Pleuroparenchymal Fibroelastosis
				Classical HRCT Findings
		Sarcoidosis
			Lymphadenopathy
			Parenchymal Changes
			High-Resolution Computed Tomography Features
				Classical HRCT Findings
		Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis
			Classical HRCT Findings
		Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis
			Classical HRCT Findings
		Lymphangioleiomyomatosis
			Classical HRCT Findings
		Connective Tissue Diseases
			Rheumatoid Disease
				Classical HRCT Findings
			Sjögren Syndrome
				Classical HRCT Findings
			Progressive Systemic Sclerosis (Scleroderma)
				Classical HRCT Findings
			Polymyositis/Dermatomyositis
				Classical HRCT Findings
			Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
				Classical HRCT Findings
		Systemic Vasculitides
			Eosinophilic Granulomatosis With Polyangiitis (Formerly Churg–Strauss Syndrome)
				Classical HRCT Findings
			Microscopic Polyangiitis
				Classical HRCT Findings
		Drug-Induced Lung Disease
			Diffuse Alveolar Damage
			Interstitial Pneumonia
			Organising Pneumonia
			Eosinophilic Pneumonia
				Classical HRCT Findings
		Occupational Lung Disease
			The International Labour Office Classification
			Silicosis/Coal Worker’s Pneumoconiosis
				Classical HRCT Findings
			Asbestos-Related Disease
			Benign Pleural Effusions
			Pleural Plaques
			Diffuse Pleural Thickening
			Round Atelectasis
			Asbestosis
				Classical HRCT Findings
		Further Reading
	11 Airspace Diseases
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
		Suggested Approach to the Radiological Diagnosis of Airspace Diseases
			Anatomical Considerations
			Radiological Signs of Airspace Disease
		Pulmonary Oedema
			Chest Radiography in Pulmonary Oedema
				Vascular Alterations
				Interstitial Oedema
				Alveolar Oedema
			Radiographic Differentiation of Cardiogenic and Non-Cardiogenic Oedema
			Computed Tomography in Pulmonary Oedema
		Diffuse Pulmonary Haemorrhage
			Idiopathic Pulmonary Haemosiderosis
			Antibasement Membrane Antibody Disease (Goodpasture’s Syndrome)
			Granulomatosis With Polyangiitis (GPA; Formerly Wegener’s Granulomatosis)
		Organising Pneumonia
			Eosinophilic Lung Disease
			Simple Pulmonary Eosinophilia (Löffler’s Syndrome)
			Acute Eosinophilic Pneumonia (AEP)
			Chronic Eosinophilic Pneumonia
		Pulmonary Alveolar Proteinosis
		Alveolar Microlithiasis
		Further Reading
	12 Cardiac Anatomy and Imaging Techniques
		Chapter Outline
		Normal Chest Radiography
		Cardiac Magnetic Resonance
			Cardiac Axis Imaging Planes
			Body Axes Imaging Planes
			Normal Anatomy on Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Images
		Computed Tomography Imaging Techniques
			Computed Tomography Imaging of Ventricles and Myocardial Tissue
			Coronary Arteries by Computed Tomography
			Valves
			Pulmonary Veins
			Other Structures
		Echocardiography
			Valves
		Acknowledgement
		Further Reading
	13 Congenital Heart Disease
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
		Clinical Presentation
			Later Clinical Presentation
		Morphological Description and Sequential Segmental Analysis
			Sequential Segmental Analysis
				Step 1—Atrial Situs
				Step 2—Ventricular Morphology
				Step 3—Ventriculo-Arterial Connection
				Step 4—Identification of Other Abnormalities
		Physiological and Functional Assessment
		Non-Invasive Imaging Techniques
			Echocardiography
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Computed Tomography
			Conventional Radiology
				Diagnostic Features
				The Pulmonary Vasculature
				Heart Size, Shape and Position
		Specific Lesions
			Acyanotic Lesions
				Septal Defects
					Atrial Septal Defects
						Key imaging goals
					Atrioventricular Septal Defects
						Key imaging goals
					Ventricular Septal Defects
						Key imaging goals
				Abnormalities of the Great Vessels
					Patent Ductus Arteriosus
						Key imaging goals
					Coarctation of the Aorta
						Key imaging goals
					Interrupted Aortic Arch
						Key imaging goals
					Abnormalities of the Aortic Arch and Vascular Rings
						Key imaging goals
				Valvular Heart Disease
					Aortic Valve Disease
						Key imaging goals
					Pulmonary Valve Disease
						Key imaging goals
					Ebstein Anomaly of the Tricuspid Valve
						Key imaging goals
				Coronary Artery Abnormalities
					Anomalous Coronary Arteries
						Key imaging goals
			Cyanotic Congenital Heart Disease
				Tetralogy of Fallot
					Key imaging goals
				Transposition of the Great Arteries
					Key imaging goals
				Congenitally Correct Transposition of the Great Arteries
					Key imaging goals
				Pulmonary Atresia
					Pulmonary atresia with a ventricular septal defect.
					Key imaging goals
					Pulmonary atresia with an intact ventricular septum.
				Double Outlet Right Ventricle
					Key imaging goals
				Common Arterial Trunk
					Key imaging goals
				Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Connection/Drainage
					Key imaging goals
			Single Ventricles
				Systemic to Pulmonary Artery Shunt
					Key imaging goals following stage 1: pre-bidirectional cavopulmonary connection (pre-BCPC)
				Bidirectional Glenn Circulation
					Key imaging goals following stage 2: pre-total cavopulmonary connection (pre-TCPC)
				Fontan Circulation
					Key imaging goals following stage 3: post-total cavopulmonary connection (post-TCPC)
				Recent Developments in Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging
					Hybrid Catheter/Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging Laboratory
					Fetal Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging
					Post-Mortem Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging
					Three-Dimensional Printing
			Conclusion
		Further Reading
	14 Nonischaemic Acquired Heart Disease
		Chapter Outline
		Role of Imaging
			Chest Radiography (CXR)
			Echocardiography
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Computed Tomography
		Cardiomyopathies
			Hypertrophic Pattern
			Dilated Phenotype
			Restrictive Phenotype
			Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy
			Unclassified Cardiomyopathy
			Myocarditis
		Valvular Heart Disease
			Mitral Valve Disease
				Mitral Valve Prolapse
				Chordal Rupture
				Functional Mitral Regurgitation
			Mitral Stenosis
				Rheumatic Mitral Valve Disease
			Tricuspid Valve Disease
			Aortic Valve Disease
				Aortic Stenosis
				Aortic Regurgitation
			New Magnetic Resonance Imaging Techniques
				Prosthetic Cardiac Valves
			Complications of Prosthetic Valves
				Structure Fracture
				Porcine Bioprosthesis
				Infective Endocarditis
				Valve Regurgitation
				Thromboembolism
		Tumours of the Heart
			Metastasis
			Primary Cardiac Tumours
			Benign Cardiac Tumours
				Cardiac Myxoma
				Lipomas
				Rhabdomyomas
				Fibroma
				Papillary Fibroelastoma
				Haemangioma
				Hydatid Disease
		Malignant Cardiac Tumours
			Primary Malignant Tumours of the Heart
				Sarcomas
					Sarcomas with myofibroblastic differentiation.
					Rhabdomyosarcoma.
				Lymphoma
		Pericardial Diseases
			Anatomy
			Pericardial Cysts
			Pericardial Defects
			Pericardial Diverticulum
			Pericardial Effusion
			Pericardial Inflammation
			Constrictive Pericarditis
			Pericardial Masses
		Further Reading
	16 Pulmonary Circulation and Pulmonary Thromboembolism
		Chapter Outline
		Pulmonary Circulation
			Pulmonary Circulation Anatomy
				Pulmonary Arteries
				Pulmonary Veins
				Bronchial Arteries
			Pulmonary Circulation Physiology
			Pulmonary Vascular Patterns
				Pulmonary Venous Hypertension
				Vascular Redistribution (Grade 1)
				Interstitial Oedema (Grade 2)
				Alveolar Oedema (Grade 3)
				Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension
					Vascular Signs
					Cardiac Signs
					Parenchymal Signs
				Pulmonary Arteriovenous Malformations
		Pulmonary Thomboembolic Disease
			Acute Pulmonary Thromboembolism
				Background
				Diagnosis
				Clinical (Pre-Test) Probability Estimate and D-Dimer Testing
				Imaging Findings
					Plain Chest Radiography
					Transthoracic or Transoesophageal Ultrasound (Echocardiography)
					Conventional Pulmonary Angiography
					Compression Ultrasound of the Legs
					Ventilation–Perfusion Scintigraphy
					Computed Tomography Pulmonary Angiography
						Computed tomography pulmonary angiography protocol.
						Combined protocols: one-stop-shop procedure.
						Computed tomography pulmonary angiography during pregnancy.
						Computed tomography pulmonary angiography assessment.
						Computed tomography perfusion.
					Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Diagnostic Strategies
			Chronic Pulmonary Thromboembolism
			Conclusion
		Acknowledgements
		Further Reading
	15 Ischaemic Heart Disease
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
		Pathophysiology of Ischaemic Heart Disease
		Coronary Artery Imaging
		Functional Imaging
		Stress Imaging
		Myocardial Infarct Imaging
		Myocardial Viability Imaging
		Imaging of Complications Related to Ischaemic Heart Disease
		Prognosis Assessment in Ischaemic Heart Disease
		Role of Conventional Chest Radiography in Ischaemic Heart Disease
		Differential Diagnosis in Ischaemic Heart Disease
		Further Reading
	17 The Thoracic Aorta
		Chapter Outline
		The Normal Aorta
		Diagnostic Aspects
			Chest X-Ray and Echocardiography
			Angiography
			Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Acute Diseases
			Chronic Diseases
		Acquired Aortic Abnormalities
			Acute Aortic Syndrome
			Aortic Dissection
				Classification
				Imaging
					Magnetic resonance imaging.
					Computed tomography.
			Intramural Haematoma
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Computed Tomography
			Penetrating Atherosclerotic Ulcer
			Traumatic Aortic Injury
				Imaging
					Magnetic resonance imaging.
					Computed tomography.
			Aortic Aneurysms
				Atherosclerotic Aortic Aneurysms
				Thoracic Aneurysms
					Magnetic resonance imaging.
					Computed tomography.
				Abdominal Aneurysms
				Inflammatory Aneurysms
					Computed tomography.
					Magnetic resonance imaging.
				Mycotic Aneurysms
				Aortic Sinus Aneurysms
			Preoperative Evaluation of Acute Aortic Syndromes
				Impending Aortic Rupture
				Visceral Malperfusion
				Preoperative or Preinterventional Evaluation
				Postoperative Evaluation
			Management of Aortic Diseases
				Traumatic Aortic Injury
				Aortic Dissection
					Type A dissection.
					Type B dissection.
					Endovascular treatment of type B dissection.
			Inflammatory Diseases of the Aorta and Midaortic Syndrome
				Midaortic Syndrome
					Granulomatous vasculitis (Takayasu disease).
					Imaging.
					Prognosis and treatment.
					Von Recklinghausen disease (type 1 neurofibromatosis).
			Aortic Occlusive Disease
				Chronic Aortic Occlusive Disease
					Investigation and management.
				Acute Aortic Occlusive Disease
					Imaging and management.
		Congenital Aortic Abnormalities
			Vascular Rings
				Double Aortic Arch
				Other Vascular Rings Associated With Aortic Arch Abnormalities
					Right aortic arch with aberrant left subclavian artery and left ligamentum arteriosum.
					Right aortic arch with mirror-image branching and retro-oesophageal ligamentum arteriosum.
				Vascular Rings Associated With Left Aortic Arch
				Aortic Arch Abnormalities Without an Anatomical Ring
					Anomalous innominate artery.
					Retro-oesophageal right subclavian artery with an otherwise normal left arch.
				Imaging
			Coarctation of the Aorta
				Chest X-Ray
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Computed Tomography
				Management
			Pseudocoarctation
			Aortic Atresia
		Further Reading
SECTION B Abdominal Imaging
	18 Current Status of Imaging of the Gastrointestinal Tract
		Chapter Outline
		Plain Abdominal Radiograph and Interpretation
		Abnormal Gas Distribution
			Pneumoperitoneum
			Gas in Bowel Wall
			Gas in Retroperitoneum
			Gas in Other Organs
		Dilatation of Bowel
			Gastric Dilatation
			Distinction Between Small- and Large-Bowel Dilatation
			Small-Bowel Dilatation
			Large-Bowel Dilatation
				Pseudo-Obstruction
				Large-Bowel Obstruction
		Abnormal Bowel Wall Pattern
			Small-Bowel Ischaemia
			Large-Bowel Ischaemia
			Inflammatory Bowel Disease
			Pseudomembranous Colitis
		Acute Abdominal Inflammatory Conditions
			Ultrasound in Appendicitis
			Computed Tomography in Appendicitis
			Other Inflammatory Conditions
		Imaging the Abdomen With Computed Tomography: Radiation Issues
		Automatic Tube Current Modulation
		Iterative Reconstruction Algorithms
		Role of MRI in the Acute Abdomen
		Radiation Dose Reduction in Clinical Practice
		Further Reading
	19 The Oesophagus
		Chapter Outline
		Anatomy and Function
			Anatomy (Table 19.1)
			Embryology
			Function
		Examination
			Plain Radiography
			Ultrasound
			Fluoroscopy
			Endoscopy
			Computed Tomography
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Endoscopic Ultrasound
			Radionuclide Radiology Including Positron-Emission Tomography–Computed Tomography
		Pathological Features
			Oesophageal Cancer
				Computed Tomography for Oesophageal Cancer
				Endoscopic Ultrasound for Oesophageal Cancer
				Positron-Emission Tomography–Computed Tomography for Oesophageal Cancer
				Treatment of Oesophageal Cancer
			Other Oesophageal Neoplasms
				Benign Lesions
				Malignant Lesions
			Hiatus Hernia
			Gastro-Oesophageal Reflux Disease
				Complications of Gastro-Oesophageal Reflux Disease
					Reflux oesophagitis.
					Columnar-lined oesophagus.
			Other Varieties of Oesophagitis
			Oesophageal Diverticula
			Motility Disorders
				Achalasia
				Jackhammer Oesophagus
				Systemic Disorders
				Neuromuscular Disorders
			Miscellaneous Conditions
				Oesophageal Diverticula
				Oesophageal Varices
				Schatzki Ring
				Dysphagia Lusoria
				Dysphagia Aortica
				Trauma
				Congenital Conditions
		Further Reading
	20 The Stomach
		Chapter Outline
		Anatomy
		Radiological Techniques
			Fluoroscopy
		Cross-Sectional Imaging
			Multidetector Computed Tomography
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			FDG-PET and FDG-PET-CT
		Gastric Pathology
			Inflammatory Disease and Infiltrative Diseases
				Helicobacter pylori and Diseases of the Stomach
			Gastric Ulcer
			Gastric Erosions
			Gastritis
			Atrophic Gastritis
			Infectious Gastritis
			Crohn and Other Granulomatous Diseases
			Hypertrophic Gastritis
			Ménétrier Disease
			Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome
			Eosinophilic Gastroenteritis
			Corrosive Ingestion
			Amyloidosis
		Neoplastic Diseases
			Mucosal Polyps
			Mesenchymal Tumours
			Gastric Carcinoma
			Early Gastric Cancer
			Advanced Gastric Cancer
			Staging of Gastric Cancer
			Gastric Lymphoma
			Carcinoid
			Metastatic Disease
		Miscellaneous Conditions
			Positional Abnormalities
			Hiatus Hernia
			Gastric Volvulus
			Gastric Pneumatosis
			Prepyloric Web (Antral Mucosal Diaphragm)
			Diverticula
			Hypertrophic Pyloric Stenosis
			Varices
			Gastric Distention
			Gastroparesis
			Ectopic Pancreas
			Bariatric Surgery
		The Postoperative Stomach
			Complications of Bariatric Surgery
			Non-Bariatric Gastric Surgeries
			Complications of Non-Bariatric Gastric Surgery
		Advances in Gastric Imaging
		Further Reading
	21 The Small Intestine, Mesentery and Peritoneal Cavity
		Chapter Outline
		The Duodenum
			Anatomy and Normal Appearances
			Radiological Investigation
		Disorders of the Duodenum
			Peptic Ulceration
				Postbulbar Ulceration
				Complications of Peptic Ulceration
			Diverticula
			Neoplasms
				Benign Neoplasms
				Malignant Neoplasms
					Primary Carcinoma
					Secondary Involvement
			Other Conditions
				Pancreatitis
				Crohn Disease
				Progressive Systemic Sclerosis
				Intramural Haematoma
				Vascular Conditions
		The Small Intestine
			Anatomy and Normal Appearances
			Radiological Investigation
				Plain Radiographs
				Barium Studies
				Computed Tomography
				Ultrasound
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Angiography
				Nuclear Medicine Studies
		Disorders of the Small Intestine
			Crohn Disease
				Radiological Appearances
			Coeliac Disease
			Neoplasms
				Malignant Neoplasms
					Carcinoid Tumour
					Adenocarcinoma
					Lymphoma
					Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumours
					Secondary Neoplasms
				Benign Neoplasms
			Infections and Infestations
				Tuberculosis
				Yersiniosis
				Actinomycosis
				Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
				Whipple Disease
			Mechanical Small-Bowel Obstruction
			Vascular Disease
				Acute Mesenteric Ischaemia
				Vasculitis
				Occult Gastrointestinal Bleeding
				Chronic Radiation Enteritis
			Miscellanous Conditions
				Diverticula and Blind Loops
					Jejunal Diverticula
					Meckel Diverticulum
					Blind Loops
					Ileal Diverticula
				Neuromuscular Disorders
				Eosinophilic Gastroenteritis
				Mastocytosis
				Angio-oedema
				Amyloidosis
				Behçet Disease
				Graft-Versus-Host Disease
				Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug Enteritis
		The Peritoneal Cavity, Mesentry and Omentum
			Anatomical Considerations
				Introduction
				Peritoneal Spaces
					Supramesocolic Space
					Inframesocolic Space
				Peritoneal Reflections
					The Mesenteries
					The Omentum
			Developmental/Congenital Anomalies
				Rotational Anomaly
				Developmental Defects
				Mesenteric Cysts
			Manifestations of Inflammation and Infection
				Peritonitis
					Tuberculosis Peritonitis
					Sclerosing Peritonitis
					Hydatid Disease of the Peritoneum
					Mesenteric Lymphadenitis
					Mesenteric Panniculitis–Sclerosing Mesenteritis
					Non-Inflammatory Mesenteric Oedema
					Epiploic Appendagitis
					Omental Infarction
		Neoplastic Diseases
			Secondary Carcinoma
				Mechanisms and Pathways of Tumour Spread
					Direct Invasion and Along Mesenteric– Ligamentous Attachments
					Intraperitoneal Seeding and Peritoneal Carcinomatosis
					Embolic Metastases
					Lymphatic Dissemination
			Cytoreductive Surgery
			Mesenteric Carcinoid
			Primary Neoplasms: Benign and Malignant
				Peritoneum
				Mesentery
				Omentum
		Further Reading
	22 The Large Bowel
		Chapter Outline
		Anatomy
		Radiological Investigation
		Tumours
			Polyps
				Polyposis Syndromes
					Familial adenomatous polyposis.
					Hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer (Lynch syndrome).
					Peutz–Jeghers syndrome.
					Rare polyposes.
				Radiographic Features of Polyps
					Computed tomography colonography.
					Magnetic resonance colonography.
					Double-contrast barium enema.
			Colorectal Cancer
				Colon Cancer
				Rectal Cancer
				Anal Cancer
			Appendix Tumours
			Lymphoma
			Secondary Cancers
		Diverticulitis
		Epiploic Appendagitis
		Colitis
			Imaging Features of Colitis
			Inflammatory Bowel Disease
				Differential Features
				Disease Activity in Inflammatory Bowel Disease
			Carcinoma in Colitis
		Other Common Causes of Colitis
			Ischaemic Colitis
			Radiation Colitis
			Behçet’s Syndrome
			Infectious Colitis
			Pseudomembranous Colitis
			Neutropenic Colitis
			Parasitic Colitis
			Tuberculosis
			Amoebiasis
			Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
			Defunctioned Colon
			Acute Fulminant Colitis
				Perforation
		Miscellaneous Conditions
			Large-Bowel Strictures
			Pseudodiverticula
			Appendicitis
			Lipomatous Disorders of the Large Bowel
			Pneumatosis Coli
			Volvulus
			Intussusception
			Endometriosis
			Retrorectal Lesions
		Functional Disorders of the Anorectum
		Anal Fistula
		Further Reading
	24 The Biliary System
		Chapter Outline
		Biliary Anatomy
			Gallbladder Anatomical Variants
		Methods of Investigation
			Ultrasound
			Computed Tomographic Cholangiography
			Magnetic Resonance Cholangiopancreatography
			Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography
			Percutaneous Transhepatic Cholangiography
			Intraoperative Cholangiography
			T-Tube Cholangiography
			Hepatobiliary Scintigraphy
			Endoscopic Ultrasound
		Disorders of the Gallbladder
			Gallbladder Stones
				Low Phospholipid-Associated Cholelithiasis
			Sludge
			Milk of Calcium Bile
			Cholecystitis
				Acute Calculous Cholecystitis
				Gangrenous Cholecystitis
				Emphysematous Cholecystitis
				Acalculous Cholecystitis
				Xanthogranulomatous Cholecystitis
			Gallbladder Mucocele
			Gallbladder Fistulae
			Porcelain Gallbladder
			Adenomyomatous Hyperplasia
			Gallbladder Polyps
			Gallbladder Carcinoma
			Gallbladder Metastases and Lymphoma
		Role of Radiology in Investigation of Jaundice
		Benign Bile Duct Pathology
			Choledocholithiasis
				Ultrasound
				Unenhanced CT
				Cholangiography
			Hepatolithiasis
			Benign Biliary Strictures
				Postoperative Strictures
				Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis
				IgG4-Related Disease
				Mirizzi Syndrome
				Pancreatitis
				HIV Cholangiopathy
				Acute Bacterial Cholangitis
				Recurrent Pyogenic Cholangitis
			Parasitic Infections
				Ascaris lumbricoides
				Hydatid
				Fascioliasis
			Biliary Leaks and Bile Duct Injuries
			Biliary Cystic Disease
		Neoplastic Bile Duct Pathology
			Cholangiocarcinoma
				Intraductal Papillary Mucinous Neoplasm of the Bile Duct
			Metastases and Lymphoma
			Pancreatic and Ampullary Tumours
			Lobar or Segmental Duct Obstruction
			Haemobilia
		Interventional Techniques
			Percutaneous Cholecystostomy
			Percutaneous Transhepatic Biliary Catheterisation
			Malignant Disease
			Hilar Strictures—Special Considerations
			Benign Disease
			Percutaneous Transjejunal Biliary Intervention
			Biopsy Techniques
		Further Reading
	23 The Liver and Spleen
		Chapter Outline
		Liver
			Anatomy
				Subdivisions (Fig. 23.2)
				Lobar Agenesis/Atrophy (Figs 23.3 and 23.4)
				Vascular Anatomy Variation (Fig. 23.5)
		Liver Imaging Techniques
			Plain Radiography
			Ultrasound
				Technique
				Normal (Fig. 23.6)
			Computed Tomography
				Technique (Fig. 23.9)
				Normal
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Techniques (Fig. 23.11)
				Intravenous Contrast Agents (Fig. 23.12)
				Normal
			Scintigraphy
				Technique
				Normal
			Angiography
		Diffuse Disease
			Benign Diffuse Disease
				Hepatic Steatosis
				Cirrhosis
				Viral Hepatitis
				Haemochromatosis and Iron Overload
				Wilson Disease
			Malignant Diffuse Disease
			Focal Disease
				Calcification
				Pneumobilia
				Portal Vein Gas
				Parenchymal Gas
			Benign Cystic Lesions
				Cysts
				Hydatid Disease
				Abscess
			Malignant Cystic Lesions
				Metastases
			Benign Solid Lesions
				Haemangioma
				Atypical Haemangiomas
				Focal Nodular Hyperplasia
				Hepatic Adenoma
				Focal Fat
				Focal Confluent Fibrosis
				Biliary Hamartomas (Fig. 23.44)
				Atypical Regenerative Nodules
			Malignant Solid Lesions
				Hepatocellular Carcinoma
				Fibrolamellar Carcinoma (Fig. 23.53)
				Hepatoblastoma
				Epithelioid Haemangioendothelioma
				Hepatic Lymphoma
				Angiosarcoma (Fig. 23.55)
				Metastases
			Vascular Lesions
				Budd–Chiari Syndrome
				Veno-occlusive Disease
				Portal Venous Hypertension
				Portal Vein Thrombosis
				Arterioportal Shunts
				Intrahepatic Portosystemic Shunts
				Arteriovenous Shunts
			Hepatic Trauma
			Liver Transplantation
				Background and Indications
				Recipient Assessment
				Living Donor Assessment
				Perioperative Imaging
				Graft Failure
			Liver Biopsy
				Liver Biopsy, Aspiration and Drainage
					Devices
					Approach Routes
					Practical Procedural Issues
					Complications and Safety
		Spleen
			Anatomy
			Congenital Variations
				Accessory Spleen or Splenunculus (Fig. 23.74)
				Polysplenia and Asplenia (Fig. 23.75)
			Acquired Diseases
				Trauma (Fig. 23.76)
				Infections (Fig. 23.77)
				Infarction (Figs 23.78 and 23.79)
			Benign Lesions
				Cysts (Fig. 23.80)
				Haemangioma (Fig. 23.81)
				Hamartomas and Lymphangiomas (Fig. 23.82)
			Malignant Lesions
				Angiosarcoma (Fig. 23.83)
				Lymphoma (Fig. 23.84)
				Metastases (Fig. 23.85)
				Leukaemia
			Other Problems
				Portal Hypertension/Splenic Vein Thrombosis
				Sarcoidosis
				Amyloidosis
				Haemosiderosis
				Extramedullary Haematopoiesis
				Gaucher Disease
		Further Reading
	25 The Pancreas
		Chapter Outline
		Embryology
		The Normal Pancreas
		Congenital Anomalies
			Pancreas Divisum
			Annular Pancreas
			Pancreatic Agenesis, Hypoplasia and Ectopic Pancreas
		Pancreatitis
		Acute Pancreatitis
			Imaging in Acute Pancreatitis
			Interstitial Oedematous Pancreatitis
				Pseudocyst
			Necrotising Pancreatitis
			Walled-Off Necrosis
				Complications of Acute Pancreatitis
		Chronic Pancreatitis
			Paraduodenal Pancreatitis
			Autoimmune Pancreatitis
		Pancreatic Neoplasms
			Ductal Adenocarcinoma
				Imaging Investigations
				Imaging Appearances
				Local Staging
				Lymph Node and Distant Metastases
				Follow-Up
			Neuroendocrine Tumours
				Functioning Tumours
				Non-Functioning Neuroendocrine Tumours
			Cystic Masses
				What to Do With Small Incidental Cystic Lesions?
			Pancreatic Metastases
			Rare Pancreatic Neoplasms
			Tumour-Simulating Conditions
		Multisystem Diseases With Involvement of the Pancreas
			Cystic Fibrosis
			Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease
			Von Hippel–Lindau Disease
			Osler–Weber–Rendu Disease
		Trauma
		Pancreatic Transplant Imaging
		Interventional Radiology
			Biopsy of Solid Pancreatic Lesions and Fine-Needle Aspiration of Cystic Pancreatic Lesions
			Drainage of Pancreatic/Peripancreatic Fluid Collections
		Further Reading
	26 Common Uroradiological Referrals
		Chapter Outline
		Haematuria
			Renal Tract Calcifications
			Imaging of Renal and Ureteric Stones
			Imaging of Renal and Ureteric Tumours
				Risk Stratification of Patients With Haematuria for Triage to Computed Tomography
				Imaging Features of Urothelial Tumours on Computed Tomography
		Loin Pain
			Imaging of Patients With Loin Pain
				Computed Tomography
			Useful Signs on Unenhanced Computed Tomography and Potential Pitfalls
				Intravenous Urography
				Ultrasound
				Radiography
				Magnetic Resonance Urography
		Renal Failure
			Chronic Renal Failure
			Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease (Adult Polycystic Kidney Disease)
			Tuberous Sclerosis
			Acquired Cystic Kidney Disease (ACKD)
			Renovascular Disease
			Iodinated Contrast Agents
			Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis
		Infection
			Acute Pyelonephritis
				Imaging of Acute Pyelonephritis
					Ultrasound.
					Computed tomography.
					Magnetic resonance imaging.
					Intravenous urography.
					Renal scintigraphy.
			Renal and Perirenal Abscess
				Imaging of Renal and Perirenal Abscess
			Emphysematous Pyelonephritis
				Imaging of Emphysematous Pyelonephritis
			Xanthogranulomatous Pyelonephritis
				Imaging of Xanthogranulomatous Pyelonephritis
			Pyonephrosis
				Imaging of Pyonephrosis
			Chronic Pyelonephritis
				Imaging of Chronic Pyelonephritis
			Renal Tuberculosis
				Imaging of Renal Tuberculosis
			Cystitis
				Imaging of Cystitis
			Prostatitis
				Acute Bacterial Prostatitis and Prostatic Abscess
					Imaging of acute prostatitis and prostatic abscess.
				Chronic Prostatitis
					Imaging of chronic prostatitis.
		Further Reading
	27 Current Status of Imaging of the Urinary Tract
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
		Anatomy of the Urinary Tract
			Embryology
			Normal Urinary Tract Anatomy
			Congenital Abnormalities of the Urinary Tract
				Renal
				Ureter and Pelvis
				Bladder and Urethra
		Techniques
			Conventional Radiography
			Intravenous Urography/Excretory Urography
			Retrograde Urography
			Retrograde Urethrography and Voiding Cystourethrogram
			Ultrasound
			Nuclear Medicine
			Computed Tomography
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		Radiation Issues
			Radiation Exposure From Medical Imaging
				Conventional Radiography
				Intravenous Urography
				Computed Tomography
		Conclusion
		Further Reading
	28 Benign Upper Urinary Tract Conditions
		Chapter Outline
		Congenital Anomalies
			Normal Development
			Ectopy and Fusion Anomalies
				Renal Ectopy
				Crossed Renal Ectopy
				Horseshoe Kidney
			Renal Agenesis and Hypoplasia
				Renal Agenesis
				Hypoplasia
			Calyceal Anomalies
				Diverticulum
				Congenital Megacalyces
			Pelvis and Ureter Anomalies
				Duplicated Collecting System (Ureteral Duplication)
				Ureteropelvic Junction Obstruction
				Congenital Megaureter
				Circumcaval Ureter
			Congenital Cystic Renal Disease
				Autosomal Recessive Polycystic Kidney Disease
				Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease
				Multicystic Dysplastic Kidney
				Obstructive Cystic Renal Dysplasia
		Cysts
			Bosniak Renal Cyst Classification System
			Cystic Nephroma
			Mixed Epithelial and Stromal Tumour of the Kidney
			Lithium-Induced Renal Disease
			Renal Cysts Associated With von Hippel–Lindau Syndrome (vHL)
			Renal Cysts Associated With Tuberous Sclerosis
			Acquired Cystic Disease of the Kidney
		Calculi
			Dual-Energy Computed Tomography
		Nephrocalcinosis
		Further Reading
	29 Renal Masses
		Chapter Outline
		Methods of Analysis
			Plain Abdominal Radiography
			Ultrasound
			Computed Tomography
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Renal Arteriography
			Intravenous Urography
			Radionuclide Imaging
			Needle Aspiration and Biopsy
		Benign Renal Masses
			Renal Cysts
				Serous Renal Cyst (See Renal Cyst Summary Box)
				Complicated Cysts
				Parapelvic and Peripelvic Cysts
				Adult Polycystic Kidney Disease (ADPKD)
				Multicystic Renal Dysplasia
				Localised Cystic Disease of the Kidney
				Hydatid (Echinococcal) Cysts of the Kidney
			Inflammatory Masses
				Renal Abscesses
				Acute Focal Pyelonephritis
				Malacoplakia
			Vascular Masses
				Haematomas
				Intrarenal Vascular Masses
			Angiomyolipomas
			Focal Hydronephrosis
			Renal Sinus Lipomatosis
			Non-Renal Masses
		Neoplastic Renal Masses
			Benign
				Adenoma and Oncocytoma
				Haemangioma
				Multilocular Cystic Nephroma
			Malignant
				Parenchymal See Renal Cancer Summary Box
					Renal cell carcinoma.
					Staging of renal cancer.
					Wilms, tumour in the adolescent and adult.
					Sarcoma.
					Lymphoma and leukaemia.
					Tumours metastatic to the kidney.
				Non-Parenchymal
					Urothelial tumours
						Transitional cell carcinoma (Fig. 29.23).
						Squamous cell carcinoma.
		Further Reading
	30 Renal Transplantation
		Chapter Outline
		History of Transplantation
		Surgical Technique
		Radiological Techniques
			Ultrasound
			Computed Tomography
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Catheter-Based Angiography and Fluoroscopy
		Vascular Complications: Early
			Renal Artery and Vein Thrombosis
		Vascular Complications: Intermediate to Late
			Renal Artery Stenosis
			Arteriovenous Malformations and Pseudoaneurysm
		Nephrogenic Complications
			Acute Rejection
			Acute Tubular Necrosis
			Chronic Rejection
			Urological Complications
			Urinoma
			Lymphocele
			Ureteric Strictures
			Renal Calculi
			Infection and Renal Transplantation
			Cancer and Transplant
		Renal Transplant Biopsy
		Use of Isotope Studies and Renal Transplant
		Radiological Evaluation of Potential Donor Kidneys
		Further Reading
	31 Urothelial Cell Cancer, Upper Tract and Lower Tract
		Chapter Outline
		Upper Tract Urothelial Carcinoma
			Definition
			Epidemiology
			Risk Factors
			Histological Classification
			Identification of Prognostic Factors
			Management
			Biopsy
			Imaging Upper Tract Urothelial Carcinoma
				Indications and Contraindications for Computed Tomography Urography
				Optimisation of Computed Tomography Urography Technique
				Quality Control
				Radiation Dose Optimisation Strategies
				Imaging Findings in Upper Tract Urothelial Carcinoma
				Magnetic Resonance Urography
			Conclusions and Summary
		Bladder Cancer
			Introduction
			Classification of Urothelial Cancers
				By Growth Pattern
				By Histology
				By Grade
			Clinical Detection
			Imaging Detection
				Technique of Computed Tomography Urography and Magnetic Resonance Urography
				Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Urographic Appearance of Bladder Cancers
				Sensitivity and Specificity of Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Urography in Detecting Bladder Cancers
				Risks of Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Urography
				Use of Positron Emission Tomography for Detecting and Evaluating Bladder Cancers
			Staging
				Imaging for Local Staging of Bladder Cancer
				Imaging for Detection of Regional and Distant Metastatic Disease
			Upper Tract Evaluation
			Treatment and Follow-Up
				Clinical and Imaging Follow-Up of Patients After Topical Treatment of Bladder Cancer
				Imaging of Patients Following Neoadjuvant Chemoradiation and Before Surgery
				Imaging Follow-Up of Patients After Cystectomy
				Use of Imaging to Identify Tumour Response to Chemotherapy
			Uncommon Bladder Neoplasms
				Squamous Cell Carcinomas
				Adenocarcinomas
				Cancers in Bladder Diverticula
				Other Urinary Tract Malignancies
				Benign Bladder Lesions
		Further Reading
			Classic Book/Articles
			Recent Journal Articles
	32 Prostate
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
		Anatomy
		Risk Stratification
		Detection and Localisation
		Prostate Imaging—Reporting and Data System
		Magnetic Resonance Sequences
			T1 Weighted Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			T2 Weighted Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Peripheral Zone
				Transition Zone
			Diffusion-Weighted Imaging
			Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		Benign Findings
			Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
			Prostatitis
		Staging
		Nodal Staging
		Non-Nodal Metastases
		Local Disease Stage
		Post-Treatment Evaluation
		Prostate Biopsy
		Further Reading
	33 The Male Reproductive Structures
		Chapter Outline
		Methods of Examination
		Anatomy
		Scrotal Masses
			Testicular Masses
				Malignant Testicular Pathology
				Staging Testicular Malignancy
					Computed Tomography
				Non-Primary Testicular Malignancies, Lymphoma and Leukaemia
				Non-Malignant Focal Testicular Lesions
				Non-Focal Testicular Abnormalities
					Tubular Ectasia
					Testicular Microlithiasis
			Extratesticular Scrotal Lesions
				Cystic Lesions
				Solid Extratesticular Lesions
					Acute Epididymitis
					Testicular Atrophy
					Testicular Trauma
					Cryptorchidism
					Testicular Torsion
		Male Infertility
			Erectile Dysfunction
			Evaluation of the Soft Tissues of the Penis
		Further Reading
	34 Gynaecological Imaging in Oncology
		Chapter Outline
		Imaging Techniques
			Ultrasound
			Computed Tomography
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Positron-Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography
		Endometrial Carcinoma
			Detection, Diagnosis and Staging
			Ultrasound
			Computed Tomography
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Stage I
				Stage II
				Stage III
				Stage IV
			Positron-Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography
			Recommended Imaging Approach
		Carcinoma of the Cervix
			Detection, Diagnosis and Staging
			Ultrasound
			Computed Tomography
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Stage I
				Stage II
				Stages III and IV
			Positron-Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography
			Recommended Imaging Approach
		Ovarian Carcinoma
			Detection, Diagnosis and Staging
			Ultrasound
			Computed Tomography
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Positron-Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography
			Recommended Imaging Approach
		Conclusion
		Acknowledgements
		Further Reading
	35 Benign Gynaecological Disease
		Chapter Outline
		Imaging Techniques
			Ultrasound (US)
			Computed Tomography (CT)
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
			Hysterosalpingography (HSG) and Fallopian Tube Catheterisation
			Sonohysterography
		Congenital Anomalies of the Female Genital Tract
			Müllerian Duct Anomalies
				Class I: Uterine Agenesis or Hypoplasia
				Class II: Unicornuate Uterus
				Class III: Uterus Didelphys
				Class IV: Bicornuate Uterus
				Class V: Septate Uterus
				Class VI: Arcuate Uterus
				Class VII: Diethylstilbestrol Related
			Vaginal Anomalies
			Imaging of Ambiguous Genitalia
		Benign Uterine Conditions
			Fibroids
				Ultrasound
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Computed Tomography
				Hysterosalpingography
			Endometrial Polyps
			Endometrial Hyperplasia
		Pelvic Pain
			Endometriosis
				Ultrasound
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Adenomyosis
				Ultrasound
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Pelvic Inflammatory Disease
				Ultrasound
				Computed Tomography
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Pelvic Varices
				Ovarian Vein Thrombosis
		Benign Ovarian Conditions
			Functional Ovarian Cysts
			Polycystic Ovaries
			Benign Tumours of the Ovary
			Epithelial Tumours
			Germ Cell Tumours
			Stromal Cell Tumours
			Ovarian Torsion
		Vaginal Cysts
		Pelvic Floor Dysfunction
			Urethral Bulking Agents
			Mid-Urethral Slings
			Sacrocolpopexy
		Infertility and Pregnancy-Related Imaging
			Ovulation Hyper-Stimulation Syndrome (OHSS)
			Ectopic Pregnancy
			Abnormal Placental Morphology: Succenturiate Placenta, Circumvallate Placenta and Placenta Membranacea
			Abnormal Placental Positions: Placenta Previa and Low-lying Placenta
			Anomalous Cord Insertion and Vasa Previa
			Placenta Accreta, Percreta and Increta
			Placental Abruption and Haemorrhage
			Retained Products of Conception
			Uterine Arteriovenous Malformation (AVM)
		Further Reading
	36 Genitourinary Tract Trauma
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
		Renal Trauma
			Imaging Technique for Renal Injury
			Grading of Renal Injury and Implications for Management
			Computed Tomography Findings of Grade I Renal Injury
			Computed Tomography Findings of Grade II Renal Injury
			Computed Tomography Findings of Grade III Renal Injury
			Computed Tomography Findings of Grade IV Renal Injury
			Computed Tomography Findings of Grade V Renal Injury
			Segmental Renal Infarcts
			Active Bleeding
			Traumatic Renal Pseudoaneurysm
		Ureteral Injury
			Imaging Technique and Computed Tomography Findings of Ureteral Injury
		Bladder Injury
			Imaging Technique
			Computed Tomography Findings
		Urethral Injury
			Imaging Technique
			Imaging Findings of Urethral Injury
		Scrotal Injury
			Imaging Technique and Findings
		Penile Injuries
			Imaging Technique and Imaging Findings
		Further Reading
	37 Adrenal Imaging
		Chapter Outline
		The Adrenal Glands
			Anatomy and Physiology
				Anatomy
				Physiology
			Incidentally Detected Adrenal Mass
				Computed Tomography
					Lesion Size and Contour
					Intracellular Lipid Content of the Adrenal Mass
					Contrast Enhancement and Contrast Washout Characteristics
					Histogram Analysis Method
					Dual-Energy Computed Tomography
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging
					Conventional Spin-Echo Imaging
					Gadolinium-Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Imaging
					Chemical-Shift Imaging
					Positron-Emission Tomography
					Percutaneous Adrenal Biopsy
					Adrenal Scintigraphy
			Incidentally Detected Non-functioning Adrenal Masses
				Adrenal Cysts
				Myelolipoma
			Imaging Functional Disorders of the Adrenal Gland
				Hyperfunctioning Adrenocortical Disorders
					Cushing’s Syndrome
						ACTH-independent Cushing’s syndrome.
							Adrenal adenomas.
							Adrenal carcinoma.
							Primary pigmented nodular adrenocortical disease.
							ACTH-independent macronodular adrenal hyperplasia.
						ACTH-dependent Cushing’s syndrome.
					Primary Hyperaldosteronism (Conn’s Syndrome)
					Virilisation
						Congenital adrenal hyperplasia.
						Adrenal virilising tumours.
				Hyperfunctioning Adrenal Medullary Disorders
					Phaeochromocytomas
					Adrenal Medullary Hyperplasia
					Neuroblastoma and Ganglioneuroblastoma
				Adrenal Hypofunction (Addison’s Disease)
					Primary Adrenal Hypofunction
					Secondary Adrenal Hypofunction
			Conclusion
		Further Reading
SECTION C The Musculoskeletal System
	38 Current Status of Imaging of The Musculoskeletal System
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
		Conventional Radiography
			Tomosynthesis
		Ultrasound
			Elastography
		Computed Tomography
			Dual-Energy Computed Tomography
			Metal Artefact Reduction
		Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Metal Artefact Reduction
			Diffusion-Weighted Imaging
			Whole-Body Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Cartilage Mapping
			Elastography
		Nuclear Medicine
		Arthrography
		Further Reading
	39 Internal Derangements of Joints
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
		The Shoulder
			Rotator Cuff Disease
			Glenohumeral Joint Instability
			Superior Labral Tears
		The Acromioclavicular Joint
		The Sternoclavicular Joint
		The Elbow
			Tendons
			Bone and Cartilage
			Ligaments
		Hand and Wrist
			Bone
			Wrist Ligaments
			Triangular Fibrocartilage
			Wrist Tendons
			Median Nerve
			Ulnar Collateral Ligament of the Thumb
		The Hip
			Labrum and Cartilage
			Muscle and Tendon
			Bone
			Bursae
		The Knee
			Menisci
			Anterior Cruciate Ligament
			Posterior Cruciate Ligament
			Medial Collateral Ligament
			Lateral Collateral Ligament Complex and Posterolateral Corner
			The Extensor Mechanism and Patellofemoral Joint
			Bone and Cartilage
			Bursae
		The Ankle and Foot
			Ligaments
			Tendons
			Bone
			Tarsal Coalition
			Other Soft-Tissue Abnormalities
		Further Reading
	40 Bone Tumours (1)
		Chapter Outline
		General Characteristics of Bone Tumours
			Age at Presentation
			Radiological Assessment of Bone Tumours
				Location
				Rate of Growth
				Periosteal Reaction
				Matrix Mineralisation
				Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Diagnosis and Staging
		Benign Bone Tumours
			Chondrogenic Tumours
				Osteochondroma
					Radiological Features
				Subungual Exostosis
					Radiological Features
				Enchondroma
					Radiological Features
					Less Common Varieties of Chondroma
						Periosteal chondroma.
						Enchondromatosis (Ollier disease).
						Enchondromatosis with haemangiomas (Maffucci syndrome).
				Chondroblastoma
					Radiological Features
				Chondromyxoid Fibroma
					Radiological Features
				Bizarre Parosteal Osteochondromatous Proliferation
					Radiological Features
			Osteogenic Tumours
				Osteoma
					Radiological Features
				Osteoid Osteoma
					Radiological Features
				Osteoblastoma
					Radiological Features
			Fibrogenic Tumours
				Desmoplastic Fibroma
					Radiological Features
			Fibrohistiocytic Tumours
				Fibrous Cortical Defect
				Non-Ossifying Fibroma
					Radiological Features
				Benign Fibrous Histiocytoma
					Radiological Features
			Giant Cell Tumour
				Radiological Features
			Vascular Tumours
				Haemangioma
					Radiological Features
			Lipogenic Tumours
				Intra-Osseous Lipoma
			Lesions of Undefined Neoplastic Nature
				Aneurysmal Bone Cyst
					Radiological Features
				Simple Bone Cyst
					Radiological Features
				Fibrous Dysplasia
					Radiological Features
				Osteofibrous Dysplasia
					Radiological Features
		Further Reading
	41 Bone Tumours (2)
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
		Bone Metastases
			Distribution of Bone Metastases
			Diagnosis of Bone Metastases
				Clinical
				Radiological Features
					Prostate.
					Breast.
					Lung.
					Kidney.
					Melanoma.
			Radiological Investigation of Bone Metastases
			Bone Metastases in Children
		Primary Malignant Neoplasms of Bone
			Chondroid Origin
				Chondrosarcoma
					Clinical Presentation
					Imaging Features
				Other Chondrosarcoma Variants
					Periosteal Chondrosarcoma
					Mesenchymal Chondrosarcoma
					Clear Cell Chondrosarcoma
			Osteoid Origin
				Osteosarcoma
					Central Osteosarcomas
						Conventional central osteosarcoma
							Clinical presentation.
							Imaging features.
						Other varieties of central osteosarcoma.
					Surface Osteosarcomas
						Parosteal osteosarcoma.
						Periosteal osteosarcoma.
						High-grade surface osteosarcoma.
					Secondary Osteosarcoma
						Paget sarcoma.
						Post-radiation sarcoma.
			Fibrous Origin
			Marrow Tumours
				Ewing Sarcoma and Primitive Neuroectodermal Tumour
				Imaging Features
			Notochordal Origin
				Chordoma
			Miscellaneous Tumours
				Malignant Vascular Tumours
				Adamantinoma
		Further Reading
	42 Soft-Tissue Tumours
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
		Imaging Characterisation of Soft-Tissue Masses
			Radiographs
			Computed Tomography
			Ultrasound
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		World Health Organisation Classification of Soft-Tissue Tumours
			Adipocytic (Lipomatous) Tumours
				Lipoma
					Radiographs
					Ultrasound
					Computed Tomography
					Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Other Benign Adipocytic Tumours
					Lipoblastoma
					Hibernoma
			Malignant Adipocytic Tumours
				Atypical Lipomatous Tumour/ Well-Differentiated Liposarcoma
				Other Adipocytic Malignancies
					Dedifferentiated Liposarcoma
					Myxoid Liposarcoma
			Fibroblastic/Myofibroblastic Tumours
				Nodular Fasciitis
				Elastofibroma
				Fibromatoses
					Superficial Fibromatosis
						Palmar fibromatosis (Dupuytren’s disease).
						Plantar fibromatosis (Ledderhose disease).
						Other forms.
					Desmoid-Type Fibromatosis
					Fibroma of the Tendon Sheath
			So-Called Fibrohistiocytic Tumours
				Tenosynovial Giant Cell Tumour
				Tenosynovial Giant Cell Tumour, Diffuse-Type (Pigmented Villonodular Synovitis)
			Vascular Tumours
				Haemangioma
					Radiographs
					Ultrasound
					Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Chondro-Osseous Tumours
				Soft-Tissue Chondromas
			Tumours of Nerves
				Benign Nerve Sheath Tumours
				Malignant Nerve Tumours
					Malignant Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumours
				Tumour-Like Lesions Arising From Nerves (Pseudotumours)
					Nerve Sheath Ganglion (Intra-Neural Ganglion)
					Traumatic Neuroma
					Morton’s Neuroma
					Lipomatosis of Nerve
			Tumours of Uncertain Differentiation
				Myxoma
				Soft-Tissue Sarcomas
				Synovial Sarcoma
			Non-Neoplastic Tumour Mimics
				Accessory Muscles
				Traumatic Lesions
				Infection/Inflammation
				Synovial Disorders
		Acknowledgement
		Further Reading
	43 Metabolic and Endocrine Skeletal Disease
		Chapter Outline
		Bone Physiology and Pathophysiology
			Bone Cells
			Bone Formation and Turnover
			Bone Growth and Development
		Osteoporosis
			Definition and Epidemiology
			Radiological Features
				Spine in Osteoporosis
				Vertebroplasty and Kyphoplasty
				Osteoporotic Fractures
			Aetiology
				Regional Osteoporosis
				Generalised Osteoporosis
					Postmenopausal osteoporosis.
					Age-related osteoporosis.
					Osteoporosis of young adults.
					Idiopathic juvenile osteoporosis.
					Secondary osteoporosis.
			Osteogenesis Imperfecta
				Type I
				Type II (Lethal Perinatal)
				Type III (Progressive Deforming Type)
				Type IV (Moderately Severe)
				Types V to XI
			Quantitative Assessment of the Skeleton
				Dual Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry
				Quantitative Computed Tomography
				Quantitative Ultrasound
				Radiogrammetry
				Vertebral Morphometry
				Other Research Methods
		Parathyroid Disorders
			Hyperparathyroidism
				Primary Hyperparathyroidism
				Secondary Hyperparathyroidism
				Clinical Presentation
				Treatment
				Radiological Findings
					Subperiosteal erosions.
					Intracortical bone resorption.
					Chondrocalcinosis.
					Brown tumours (osteitis fibrosa cystica).
					Osteosclerosis.
					Osteoporosis.
					Metastatic calcification.
			Hypoparathyroidism
				Aetiology
				Radiological Abnormalities
			Pseudohypoparathyroidism
				Radiographic Abnormalities
			Pseudo-Pseudohypoparathyroidism
		Rickets and Osteomalacia
			Vitamin D Deficiency
				Genetic Disorders of Vitamin D Metabolism
				Oncogenic Osteomalacia
				Radiological Appearances
					Rickets.
					Osteomalacia.
			Renal Osteodystrophy
				Renal Tubular Defects
					X-linked hypophosphataemia.
			Other Causes of Rickets and Osteomalacia (Not Related to Vitamin D Deficiency or Hypophosphatemia)
				Hypophosphatasia
		Sclerosing Bone Diseases and Other Bone Disorders
			Osteopetrosis
				Autosomal Recessive Lethal Type of Osteopetrosis
				Benign, Autosomal Dominant Type of Osteopetrosis (Albers-Schönberg Disease)
			Hyperphosphatasia
		Miscellaneous
			Vitamin D Intoxication
			Hypervitaminosis A
			Fluorosis
			Other Endocrine Diseases
				Cushing Disease
				Thyroid Disease
				Acromegaly
		Further Reading
	44 Arthritis
		Chapter Outline
		Imaging of Joint Disease
			Plain Radiographic Interpretation: General Principles
				Soft-Tissue Swelling
				Alteration in Joint Space
				Bone Changes
					Osteopenia.
					Erosion.
					Entheseal disease.
				Bone Alignment
				Distribution of Joint Involvement
		Osteoarthritis
			Primary Osteoarthritis
			Secondary Osteoarthritis
			Radiographic Findings
			Radiographic Changes at Specific Joints
				Knee
				Hip
				Hands and Wrists
				Spine
			Advanced Imaging
			Erosive (Inflammatory) Osteoarthritis
		The Inflammatory Arthritides
			Rheumatoid Arthritis
			Synovitis
				Radiographic Features
				Radiographs in Treated Inflammatory Disease
			Sero-Negative Arthritis
				Ankylosing Spondylitis
					Sacroiliitis.
					Spinal disease.
					Peripheral joint involvement.
				Psoriatic Arthritis
					Joints of the hands and feet.
					Spinal and large joint disease.
				Reactive Arthritis
				Enteropathy-Associated Arthritis
			The Crystal Arthritides
				Gout
					Acute intermittent gout.
					Chronic tophaceous gout.
				Calcium Pyrophosphate Dihydrate Crystal Deposition Disease
					Imaging findings.
					Pyrophosphate arthropathy.
				Calcium Hydroxyapatite Crystal Deposition Disease
					Periarticular hydroxyapatite deposition disease.
					Intra-articular hydroxyapatite deposition disease.
			Connective Tissue Disease
				Scleroderma
				Dermatomyositis and Polymyositis
				Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
				Rheumatic Fever (Jaccoud Arthropathy)
				Mixed Connective Tissue Disease
			Miscellaneous Joint Disease
				Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis
				Haemophilic Arthropathy
					Other musculoskeletal manifestations of haemophilia.
				Neuropathic Arthropathy
			Synovial (Osteo)-Chondromatosis
			Pigmented Villonodular Synovitis
			Lipoma Arborescens
			Amyloid
			Sarcoid
			Hypertrophic Pulmonary Osteoarthropathy
			Multicentric Reticulohistiocytosis
			Haemochromatosis
		Further Reading
	45 Appendicular and Pelvic Trauma
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
		Fracture Types
			Adult Fracture Patterns and Ancillary Findings
				Complete Fractures
					Orientation.
					Location.
					Distraction, impaction and angulation.
					Articular involvement.
					Soft tissue features.
				Comminuted Fractures
				Occult Fractures
			Types of Occult Fracture
				Occult-Complete Fractures
				Occult-Incomplete Fractures
				Bone Bruising
				Insufficiency, Pathological and Stress Fractures
				Avulsion Fractures
			Paediatric Fractures
				Morphological Types
					Plastic bowing fracture.
					Buckle (torus) fracture.
					Green stick fracture.
				Growth Plate Injuries
				Type I
				Type II
				Type III
				Type IV
				Type V
			Dislocation and Subluxation
		The Shoulder
			Anterior Dislocation
			Posterior Dislocation
			Luxatio Erecta
		Acromio-Clavicular Joint
		The Elbow
			Children
				Supracondylar Fractures
					Lateral epicondyle fractures.
					Medial epicondyle fractures.
			Adults
		The Wrist
			Radius and Ulna
			Children
			Adults
			Colles Fracture
			Smith Fracture
			Barton Fracture
			Chauffeur Fracture (Hutchinson Fracture)
			Carpal Injuries
				Scaphoid
				Triquetrum
			Carpal Dislocation and Subluxation
			Lunate Dislocation
			Perilunate Dislocation
			Mid-Carpal Dislocation
			Scapholunate Disassociation
			Injuries of the Metacarpals and Phalanges
			Condylar Fractures
			Articular Fractures
			Avulsion Fractures
		Pelvic and Acetabular Fractures
			Pelvic Ring Fractures
				Anatomy
				Classification
				Anterior Compression Injuries
			Lateral Compression Injury
			Vertical Shear
			Complex Injuries
				Acetabular Fractures
				Anatomy
			Classification
			Elementary Patterns
				Anterior Wall Fractures
				Posterior Wall Fractures
				Anterior and Posterior Column Fractures
				Transverse Fractures
				Complex Fractures
			Pelvic Avulsion Injuries
				Pelvic Insufficiency and Stress Fractures
				Pathological Fractures
				The Hip and Proximal Femur
				Femoral Neck Fracture
				Intertrochanteric and Subtrochanteric Fracture
				Lesser Trochanter Fracture
				Atypical Femoral Fractures
		The Knee
			Tibial Plateau Fractures
			Anterior Cruciate Ligament Avulsion Fracture
			Segond Fracture
			Fibula Avulsion Fracture
			Patella Fractures
			Patellar Dislocation
		The Ankle
			Supination-Abduction (Fig. 45.94)
			Supination-Lateral Rotation (Fig. 45.97)
			Pronation-Abduction (Fig. 45.100)
			Pronation-Lateral Rotation (Fig. 45.103)
			Pilon Fracture
			Paediatric Ankle Fractures
				Tillaux Fracture
				Triplane Fracture
				Talar Dome Fractures
				Calcaneal Fractures
				Talar Fractures
		Foot Injuries
			Lisfranc Injury
			Stress Fracture
		Further Reading
	46 Bone, Joint and Spinal Infections
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
		Epidemiology
		Classification
		Paediatric Musculoskeletal Infections
			Pathophysiology
			Clinical Features
			Investigations and Management
				Plain Radiographs
				Ultrasound
				Computed Tomography
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Nuclear Medicine
			Chronic Recurrent Multifocal Osteomyelitis
			Synovitis, Acne, Pustulosis, Hyperostosis and Osteitis Syndrome
			Sclerosing Osteomyelitis of Garré
			Necrotising Fasciitis
		Adult Musculoskeletal Infections
			Pathogenesis
			Clinical Features
			Investigations and Management
				Plain Radiographs
				Ultrasound
				Computed Tomography
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Nuclear Medicine
			Osteomyelitis Secondary to Prosthetic Devices
		Diabetic Foot
			Plain Radiography
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		Septic Arthritis
		Musculoskeletal Tuberculosis
			Pathogenesis
			Investigations (Table 46.2)
				Plain Radiography
				Computed Tomography
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		Unusual Musculoskeletal Infections
			Atypical Mycobacterial Musculoskeletal Infections
			Hydatid Disease
			Bone Infections in Sickle Cell Disease
			Musculoskeletal Fungal Infections
			Musculoskeletal Infections in Human Immunodeficiency Virus Patients
		Differential Diagnosis
		Management
		Spinal Infection
			Vertebral Osteomyelitis
			Pyogenic Vertebral Osteomyelitis
				Symptoms
				Investigations
					Plain radiographs.
					Computed tomography.
					Magnetic resonance imaging.
					Nuclear medicine.
				Treatment
			Tuberculous Vertebral Osteomyelitis
				Plain Radiographs
				Computed Tomography
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Unusual Spine Infections
		Further Reading
SECTION D The Spine
	47 Current Status of Imaging of the Spine and Anatomical Features
		Chapter Outline
		Anatomy
			Osseous Elements
				Vertebral Body
				Neural Arch
				Spinous and Transverse Processes
			Joints
				Facet Joints
				Uncovertebral Joints
				Intervertebral Disc—Symphysis
			Ligaments
				Longitudinal Ligaments
				Ligamentum Flavum
				Interconnecting Ligaments
			Neural Structures—Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, Dura Mater
			Vascular Structures
			Craniocervical Junction
		Imaging Techniques
			Plain Radiography
			Myelography
			Spinal Angiography
			Computed Tomography
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Spin-Echo T1 Weighted Imaging
				Contrast-Enhanced T1 Weighted Imaging
				Spin-Echo and Fast Spin-Echo T2 Weighted Imaging
				Gradient-Echo Imaging
				Fat-Suppression Magnetic Resonance Pulse Sequences
				Frequency-Selective Saturation
				Short Tau Inversion Recovery
				Frequency-Selective Inversion Pulse (Spectral Presaturation with Inversion Recovery [SPIR], Spectral Presaturation Attenuated Inversion Recovery [SPAIR])
				Diffusion-Weighted Imaging
				Fluid-Attenuated Inversion Recovery
				Three-Dimensional Imaging
				Artefacts
					Susceptibility Artefacts
					Motion Artefacts
					Truncation Artefacts
					Cerebrospinal Fluid Pulsation Artefacts
			Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography
		Further Reading
	48 Degenerative Disease of the Spine
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
		Degenerative Disc Disease
			Nomenclature and Classification
			Age-Related Changes in the Intervertebral Disc
			Degenerative Disc Disease
			Annular Tears
			Disc Herniation
			Spontaneous Regression of Disc Herniation
			Vertebral End Plates and Bone Marrow Changes
			Uncovertebral Degeneration
		Pathology of the Posterior Elements
			Osteoarthritis of the Facet Joints
			Associated Soft-Tissue Changes
				Degenerative Cysts Arising From the Facet Joints
				Cysts of the Ligamentum Flavum
				Ligamentum Flavum Hypertrophy
			Degenerative Changes of the Neural Arch
				Neural Arch Intervertebral Neoarthrosis
				Spinous Process Abnormalities and Associated Ligamentous Changes
			Degenerative Spondylolisthesis
		Degenerative Spinal Stenosis
			Degenerative Spinal Canal Stenosis
			Degenerative Foraminal Stenosis
		Degenerative Scoliosis
		Further Reading
	49 Spinal Tumours
		Chapter Outline
		Radiological Investigations in Spinal Tumours
			Plain Radiography
			Computed Tomography
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Diffusion-Weighted Imaging
			Bone Scintigraphy
			Positron Emission Tomography
		Classification of Spinal Tumours
			Intramedullary Tumours
				Ependymoma
				Myxopapillary Ependymoma
				Astrocytoma
				Haemangioblastoma
				Ganglioglioma
				Less-Frequent Intramedullary Tumours
					Metastasis.
				Spinal Cord Tumour Mimics
					Cavernous malformation (cavernoma).
			Intradural Extramedullary Tumours
				Nerve Sheath Tumours: Schwannoma and Neurofibroma
				Meningioma
				Metastases
				Less-Frequent Extramedullary Tumours
				Intradural Extramedullary Tumour Mimics
			Extradural Tumours
				Metastatic Spine Disease
				Primary Vertebral Tumours
			Benign Primary Vertebral Tumours
				Vertebral Haemangioma
				Osteoid Osteoma/Osteoblastoma
				Osteoblastoma
				Aneurysmal Bone Cyst
				Eosinophilic Granuloma (Unifocal Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis)
			Benign Notochordal Cell Tumours
				Locally Aggressive Primary Vertebral Tumours
					Chordoma.
					Giant cell tumours.
			Primary Malignant Vertebral Tumours
				Multiple Myeloma and Plasmacytoma
				Chondrosarcoma
				Ewing Sarcoma
				Osteosarcoma
		Further Reading
	50 Non-Tumoural Spinal Cord Lesions
		Chapter Outline
		Inflammatory Disease
			Multiple Sclerosis
			Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis
			Acute Transverse Myelitis
			Neuromyelitis Optica
			Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
			Sarcoidosis
		Demyelinating Polyneuropathies
			Guillain–Barré Syndrome
			Chronic Inflammatory Demyelinating Polyneuropathy
		Vascular Diseases
			Spinal Dural Arteriovenous Fistula
			Spinal Arteriovenous Malformations
			Spinal Cord Cavernous Malformation
			Spinal Cord Infarction
			Spinal Cord Vasculitis
			Infections
				Spinal Cord Infection Can Be Bacterial, Viral, Fungal or Parasitic in Origin
		Developmental and Cyst-Like Lesions
			Intramedullary Lipoma
			Lipomyelomeningodysplasias
			Diastematomyelia
			Neuroenteric and Other Developmental Cysts
			Chiari Malformations
				Chiari Type I Lesion (Cerebellar Ectopia)
				Chiari Type II Malformations
			Meningoceles
				Anterior Sacral Meningocele
				Lateral Thoracic Meningocele
				Anterior Thoracic Meningocele With Ventral Herniation of the Spinal Cord
			Intraspinal Arachnoid Cyst
			Syringomyelia
		Neurodegenerative and Metabolic Diseases
			Motor Neurone Disease
			Spinal Muscular Atrophy
			Spinocerebellar Ataxia
			Friedreich Ataxia
			Subacute Combined Degeneration of the Spinal Cord
		Further Reading
	51 Postoperative Spine
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
		Principles of Spinal Surgery
		Imaging Techniques in Postoperative Spine
		Intraoperative and Perioperative Complications
		Early Complications
		Late Complications
			Failed Back Surgery Syndrome
		Further Reading
	52 Spinal Trauma
		Chapter Outline
		Clinical Aspects
		Imaging Techniques and Evaluation
			Cervical Spine
				Conventional Radiography
				Computed Tomography
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Thoracolumbar Spine
				Conventional Radiography
				Computed Tomography
		Specific Injury Patterns
			Cervical Spine
				Atlanto-Occipital Dissociation
				Occipital Condyle Fractures
				C1 Injuries
					Rotatory Subluxation
					Jefferson Fracture
				C2 Injuries
					Odontoid Fractures
					Hangman Fracture
				Hyperflexion Injuries
				Hyperflexion-Rotation Injury
				Hyperextension Injuries
				Lateral Flexion Injury
			Thoracic and Lumbar Spine
				Classification Systems
					Flexion-Compression and Flexion-Distraction Injuries
					Burst Fractures
				Fracture-Dislocation
			The Rigid Spine
			Neurological Injury
				Spinal Cord
				Brachial Plexus Injury
		Further Reading
SECTION E Neuroimaging
	53 Current Status of Imaging of the Brain and Anatomical Features
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
		Anatomy of the Brain and Vascular System
			Embryology
		Brain Anatomy
			Cerebral Cortex, Lobar Anatomy and Deep Grey Matter Structures
			White Matter
			Limbic System, Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
			Ventricular System and Subarachnoid Space
			Cerebellum
			Brainstem
		Cerebral Vasculature
			Cerebral Arteries
			Anterior Circulation
			Posterior Circulation
			External Carotid Artery
			Anastomotic Pathways
			Intracranial Veins
		Techniques for Imaging the Brain and Cerebral Vasculature
			Plain Radiographs
			Transcranial or Orbital Ultrasound
			Computed Tomography
				Introduction
				Background
				Basic Principles and Scanning Parameters
				Image Reconstruction and Display
				Image Appearance
				Indications, Risks and Benefits
				Artefacts and Limitations
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Introduction
				Background
				Basic Principles
					Magnetic resonance imaging machine.
					Signal generation.
					Image appearance and basic applications.
				Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Interventional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
					Indications, risks and benefits.
					MRI artefacts.
			Nuclear Medicine
				Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography
				Positron Emission Tomography
			Vascular Imaging Techniques
				Digital Subtraction Angiography
				Computed Tomography Angiography
					Computed tomography perfusion.
				Magnetic Resonance Angiography
		Further Reading
	54 Imaging of Head Trauma
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
		Modality and Technique
		Mechanism of Injury
		Primary Injury
			Calvarial/Skull Fractures
			Skull Base Fracture
			Vascular Injury
			Traumatic Intra-Cranial Haemorrhage
				Epidural Haemorrhage
				Subdural Haemorrhage
				Traumatic Subarachnoid Haemorrhage
			Traumatic Injury to the Brain
				Contusional Brain Injury
				Diffuse Axonal Injury
				Chronic Imaging Findings of Traumatic Parenchymal Injury
			Secondary Brain Injury
		Further Reading
	55 Benign and Malignant Intracranial Tumours in Adults
		Chapter Outline
		Radiological Investigations in Intracranial Tumours
			Computed Tomography
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Advanced Physiological and Molecular Imaging Methods
				Magnetic Resonance Perfusion-Weighted Imaging
				Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
				Magnetic Resonance Diffusion Imaging
				Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Positron-Emission Tomography
				World Health Organization Classification of Central Nervous System Tumours 2016
		Intra-Axial Tumours
			Gliomas
			Isocitrate Dehydrogenase Wild-Type Astrocytoma (WHO II–III)
			Glioblastoma (WHO IV)
			Isocitrate Dehydrogenase-Mutant Lower Grade Gliomas
			Oligodendroglioma (IDHmut With 1p19q Codeletion)
			Isocitrate Dehydrogenase-Mutant Astrocytoma (IDHmut 1p19q Intact)
			Midline Glioma, Histone H3 K27M-Mutant
			Post-Treatment Monitoring of Gliomas
				The Role of Advanced Physiological Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Glial Tumours
				Tumours of Predominantly Neuronal Cell Origin
				Gangliogliomas and Gangliocytomas
				Dysembryoplastic Neuroepithelial Tumour
			Other Glioneuronal Tumour Types
			Non-Glial Brain Malignancy
				Lymphoma
			Metastases
			Intraventricular Tumours
				Ependymoma
				Central Neurocytoma
				Choroid Plexus Tumours
				Colloid Cyst
				Meningioma
		Extra-Axial Tumours
			Meningiomas
			Cranial Nerve Sheath Tumours
			Epidermoid and Dermoid Tumours
			Meningeal Metastases
			Skull Base Tumours
				Chordomas
				Glomus Jugulare Tumours
				Pineal Region Tumours
			Pituitary Region Tumours
				Pituitary Adenomas
				Craniopharyngiomas
				Rathke Cleft Cysts
				Other Sellar Region Tumours
		Further Reading
	56 Neurovascular Diseases
		Chapter Outline
		Stroke
			Pathophysiology
			The Penumbra Model
			Stroke Classification
			Causes
				Large Vessel Thromboembolic Stroke (40%)
				Cardioembolic Stroke (15% to 30%)
				Small Vessel or Lacunar Stroke (15% to 30%)
			Borderzone Infarction
			Global Hypoxic–Ischaemic Injury
			Imaging Strategies and Goals in Acute Stroke
			Objectives of Non-Enhanced Cranial Computed Tomography in Acute Stroke
			Hyperacute Infarct Imaging Signs on Computed Tomography
				ASPECTS Infarct Size Scoring System
				Advanced Imaging
				Objectives of Penumbral Imaging
					Perfusion imaging.
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Acute Stroke
					Angiographic imaging.
					Assessment of collateral flow.
					Additional advanced imaging techniques.
					Computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging?
				Subacute and Chronic Infarct Imaging Signs
			Atheromatous Extracranial Vascular Disease
				Imaging Options for Carotid Stenosis
					Vessel plaque imaging.
				Imaging Signs
			Non-Atheromatous Extracranial Vascular Narrowing
				Arterial Dissection
				Fibromuscular Dysplasia
			Intracranial Vascular Disease
				Ischaemic Microangiopathy
				Moyamoya
				Vasculitis
			Cerebral Venous Thrombosis
		Non-Traumatic Intracranial Haemorrhage
			Subarachnoid Haemorrhage
				Initial Investigation of Acute Subarachnoid Haemorrhage
				Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Haemorrhage
				Angiography in Acute Subarachnoid Haemorrhage
				Imaging of Incidental Intracranial Aneurysms
			Intracerebral Haemorrhage
				Appearance on Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Angiography in Intracerebral Haemorrhage
			Arteriovenous Malformations
			Subdural and Extradural Haemorrhage
		Further Reading
	57 Intracranial Infections
		Chapter Outline
		Bacterial Infections
			Bacterial Meningitis
			Cerebritis and Brain Abscess
			Epidural Abscess and Subdural Empyema
			Ventriculitis
			Tuberculosis
			Neurosyphilis
		Fungal Infections
		Viral Infections
			Herpes Simplex Encephalitis
			Other Viral Encephalitides
			Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
				Human Immunodeficiency Virus Encephalopathy
				Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Vascular Disease
				Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy
				Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome
		Parasitic Infections
			Toxoplasmosis
			Cysticercosis
			Echinococcus (Hydatid Disease)
			Malaria
		Further Reading
	59 Neurodegenerative Diseases and Epilepsy
		Chapter Outline
		Ageing and Dementia—Introduction and Clinical Overview
		Normal Ageing Phenomena in the Brain
		Dementia—Imaging Approach
			Indications for Imaging
			Protocol for Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		Alzheimer Disease and Other Primary Neurodegenerative Dementias
			Alheimer Disease
			Frontotemporal Lobar Degeneration
		Vascular Dementia
			Large-Vessel Vascular Dementia
			Small-Vessel Vascular Dementia
			Cerebral Autosomal Dominant Arteriopathy With Subcortical Infarcts and Leukoencephalopathy, Fabry Disease and Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy
			Systemic Causes of Vascular Dementia
			Differential Diagnosis of WM Disorders in Dementia
		Rapidly Progressive and Other Atypical Dementias
			Infectious and Inflammatory Disease
				Human Immunodeficiency Viruses and Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy
				Prion Disease
				Autoimmune Limbic Encephalitis
			Toxic/Metabolic and Leukodystrophic Disorders
		Parkinson Disease and Related Disorders
			Idiopathic Parkinson Disease and Differential Diagnosis
			Dementia With Parkinsonism
			Neurodegeneration and Other Movement Disorders
		Epilepsy
			Introduction and Clinical Overview
			The New Basic Classification of Seizures
				Focal Seizures
				Generalised Seizures
		Epilepsy—Imaging Approach
			Indications for Imaging
			Imaging Protocol
			Epilepsy—Structural Alterations
				Malformation of Cortical Development
				Vascular Malformations
				Hippocampal Sclerosis
					Hypoxic-ischaemic haemorrhagic disorders
				Traumatic Brain Injury
					Tumours
			Epilepsy—Metabolic Aetiology
			Epilepsy—Immune Aetiology
			Epilepsy—Infectious Aetiology
			Epilepsy—Structural Brain Alterations— Congenital Disorders
				Malformation of Cortical Development: Migration and Gyration Disorders
			Epilepsy—Structural Brain Alterations— Genetic Syndromes
			Epilepsy—Structural Brain Alterations— Predominately Acquired Diseases
				Hippocampal Sclerosis
				Neoplasms
				Post-Traumatic Epilepsy
				Cerebrovascular Disorders
				Epilepsy—Infectious Aetiology
		Further Reading
	58 Inflammatory and Metabolic Disease
		Chapter Outline
		Inflammatory-Demyelinating Disorders of the Central Nervous System
			Multiple Sclerosis
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Multiple Sclerosis Variants
				Marburg Disease
				Schilder Disease
				Baló Concentric Sclerosis
			Pseudotumoural Lesions
			Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders
			Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis
				Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis Variants
					Bickerstaff encephalitis.
					Acute haemorrhagic leukoencephalitis.
		Primary and Secondary Vasculitis
			Introduction
			Primary Angiitis of the Central Nervous System
			Secondary Central Nervous System Vasculitis
				Primary Systemic Vasculitis With Central Nervous System Involvement
					Giant-cell arteritis.
					Takayasu arteritis.
					Kawasaki disease.
					Polyarthritis nodosa.
		Neurosarcoidosis
		Behçet Disease
		Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
		Metabolic and Toxic Disorders in the Adult
			Radiotherapy
				Postradiotherapy Leukoencephalopathy
				Radionecrosis
				Radiation-Induced Vascular Malformations
				Stroke-Like Migraine Attacks After Radiation Therapy Syndrome
			Methotrexate
			Posterior Reversible Encephalopathy Syndrome
			Mild Encephalopathy With a Reversible Isolated Splenium of the Corpus Callosum Lesion
			Brain Gadolinium Deposition
			Alcohol-Related Diseases
				Brain Atrophy
				Marchiafava–Bignami Disease
		Drug-Induced Encephalopathies
			Cocaine
			Opioids and Derivatives
			Cannabis
			Ecstasy
		Other Intoxications
			Methanol Poisoning
			Diethylene Glycol
			Carbon Monoxide
			Heavy Metal Poisoning
			Organic Solvent Poisoning
		Metabolic Encephalopathy
			Inherited Metabolic Encephalopathy in Adults
			X-Linked Adrenoleukodystrophy
			Krabbe Disease
			Fabry Disease
			Metachromatic Leukodystrophy
			MELAS
			Non-Inherited Metabolic Encephalopathy
				Wernicke Encephalopathy
				Osmotic Demyelination
				Hepatic Encephalopathy
			Acute Glycaemia Disorders
				Hypoglycaemia
				Hyperglycaemia Without Ketosis
		Acknowledgements
		Further Reading
	60 The Orbit
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
		Orbital Anatomy
			Osseous Anatomy
			Muscular Anatomy
			The Globe
			Vascular and Nervous Supply of the Orbit
		Imaging of the Orbit
		Orbital Pathology
			Congenital Disease
				Coats’ Disease
				Persistent Hypertrophic Primary Vitreous
				Retinopathy of Prematurity
				Coloboma
				Dermoid
			Disorders of Globe Size or Shape
			Degenerative Disease
				Drusen
			Orbital Inflammatory Disease
				Thyroid Orbitopathy
				Idiopathic Orbital Inflammation
				Systemic Inflammatory Diseases With Orbital Involvement
				IgG4-Related Orbital Disease
			Sarcoidosis
			Granulomatosis With Polyangiitis
			Orbital Apex Disorders
				Orbital Infection
				Lacrimal Gland Pathology
				Benign Lacrimal Fossa Masses
				Malignant Lacrimal Fossa Masses
			Benign Neoplasms and Mass-Like Lesions
				Nerve Sheath Tumour
				Optic Nerve Glioma
				Optic Nerve Sheath Meningioma
			Vascular Lesions of the Orbit
				Cavernous Haemangioma
				Capillary Haemangioma
				Varix
				Venous Lymphatic Malformation
				Arteriovenous Malformations
				Carotid-Cavernous Fistula
			Malignant Neoplasms
				Uveal Melanoma
				Metastatic Disease
				Lymphoproliferative Malignancy
			Paediatric Neoplasms
				Retinoblastoma
				Rhabdomyosarcoma
				Medulloepithelioma
			Ischaemia
		Orbital Trauma
		The Retro-Orbital Visual Pathway
			Introduction
			Anatomy
			Pathologies of the Anterior Visual Pathway (Optic Nerves, Chiasm and Optic Tracts)
				Congenital
					Intrinsic Tumours
					Inflammatory/Demyelinating Lesions
					Extrinsic Compression
			Pathologies of the Posterior Visual Pathway (Lateral Geniculate Nucleus, Optic Radiation and Visual Cortex)
				Central Gaze Palsies
			Other Neuro-Ophthalmological Conditions
				Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension
				Recurrent Ophthalmoplegic Cranial Neuropathy
		Further Reading
	61 Head and Neck Radiology
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
		The Ear
			The Auricle and External Auditory Canal
				Anatomy
				Pathology
					Chronic Stenosing Otitis Externa.
					Exostoses and Osteoma of the External Auditory Canal.
					Keratosis Obturans.
					External Auditory Canal Cholesteatoma.
					Necrotising Otitis Externa.
					Neoplasia of the Auricle and External Auditory Canal.
					Congenital Atresia/Stenosis of the External Auditory Canal.
			The Middle Ear
				Anatomy and Physiology
				Pathology
					Cholesteatoma.
					Tympanosclerosis.
					Otosclerosis.
					Fenestral.
					Retrofenestral or pericochlear.
					Ossicular disruption.
					Venous sinus thrombosis.
					Intracranial complications.
			The Inner Ear
				Anatomy and Physiology
				Pathology
					Vestibular schwannoma.
					Trauma.
					Congenital malformations.
					Facial palsy.
					Glomus tumours (paragangliomas).
					Cochlear electrode implantation.
		The Sinonasal Region
			Anatomy and Physiology
			Radiology and Pathology
				Rhinosinusitis
				Nasal Polyposis
				Antrochoanal Polyp
				Mucocoeles
				Epistaxis
				Nasal and Paranasal Sinus Tumours
				Osteoma
				Inverted Papilloma
				Juvenile Angiofibroma
				Sinonasal Malignancy
		The Oral Cavity
			Anatomy
			Radiology and Pathology
				Mucosal Lesions
		The Salivary Glands
			Anatomy
			Radiology and Pathology
				Tumours—Benign, Malignant
				Sialadenitis
				Sialolithiasis
		Fractures of the Facial Skeleton
			Fractures of the Zygomatic Complex
			Orbital Blow-Out Fractures
			Radiological Investigation of Maxillary Fractures
			Fractures of the Mandible
		The Temporomandibular Joint
			Anatomy
			Pathology and Radiology
				Developmental Abnormalities
				Temporomandibular Joint Dysfunction
				Arthritides
				Injury
		The Suprahyoid Neck
			Anatomy
			The Parapharyngeal Space
			The Parotid Space
				Anatomy and radiology.
			The Retropharyngeal Space and Danger Space
				Anatomy.
				Pathology.
			The Masticator Space
			Mandible
				Anatomy.
				Pathology and radiology
					Inflammation.
					Tumours.
			The Carotid Space
				Anatomy.
				Pathology
					Carotid artery dissection.
					Carotid and vagal paragangliomas.
					Schwannoma.
			The Pharyngeal Mucosal Space (PMS)
				Anatomy.
			Nasopharynx
				Anatomy.
				Radiology and pathology
					Nasopharyngeal malignancy.
			Oropharynx
				Anatomy.
				Radiology and pathology.
			Perivertebral Space
		The Infrahyoid Neck
			Anatomy
			Hypopharynx
				Radiology and Pathology
			Larynx
				Anatomy and Physiology
				Radiology and Pathology
					Laryngeal malignancy.
					Laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma.
					Chondrosarcoma
					Adenoid cystic carcinoma.
					Laryngocoele.
					Recurrent laryngeal nerve.
			Thyroid and Parathyroid
				Anatomy
				Radiology
					Ultrasound.
					Nuclear medicine.
					Magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography.
				Thyroid Pathology
					Thyroiditis.
					Thyroid malignancy.
				Parathyroid Pathology
		Cervical lymph nodes
			Radiology and pathology
		Acknowledgements
		Further Reading
SECTION F Oncological Imaging
	62 Introduction to Oncological Imaging
		Chapter Outline
		Imaging Techniques for Cancer Imaging
			Computed Tomography
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Positron-Emission Tomography
		Diagnosis and Imaging
			Primary Diagnosis
			Confirmation of Diagnosis
		Staging
			Staging Systems
			Diagnosis and Staging in Clinical Practice
				Non–Small Cell Lung Cancer
				Breast Cancer
				Prostate Cancer
				Rectal Cancer
				Distant Metastatic Disease
		Assessment of Treatment Response
			Objective Response Assessment
			Imaging Post-Treatment Residual Masses
			Treatment Toxicity
				Lung
				Bone and Bone Marrow
				Neurotoxicity
				Hepatic Toxicity
			Cardiotoxicity
		Surveillance and Restaging
			Surveillance of Asymptomatic Patients
			Restaging of Symptomatic Patients
		Conclusion
		Further Reading
	63 The Breast
		Chapter Outline
		Mammographic Techniques
			Standard Projections
			Additional Projections
			Breast Compression
			Radiation Dose
			Digital Breast Tomosynthesis
			Digital Breast Tomosynthesis in Breast Cancer Screening
			Contrast Enhanced Spectral Mammography
		Ultrasound
			Ultrasound Technique
		Normal Breast Anatomy
		Breast Pathology
			Benign Lesions With Mass Effect
				Cysts
				Fibroadenomas and Related Conditions
				Papilloma
				Lipoma
				Hamartoma
			Invasive Carcinoma
				Classification of Invasive Breast Cancer
				Imaging Appearance of Invasive Breast Cancer
					Mammography.
					Ultrasound.
				The Differential Diagnosis of Malignancy
			Microcalcifications
				Benign Microcalcifications
				Malignant Microcalcifications
		Breast Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Technique
			Lesion Characterisation
			Indications for Breast Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Local Staging
				Monitoring Response to Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy
				High-Risk Screening
			Managing Magnetic Resonance Imaging-Detected Lesions
			Controversies Surrounding the Use of Breast Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging for Imaging Breast Implants
		Nuclear Medicine Techniques
		Interventional Breast Radiology
			Core Needle Biopsy
			Vacuum-Assisted Biopsy (VAB)
			Guidance Methods for Breast Needle Biopsy
			Number of Samples
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging-Guided Biopsy
			Managing the Result of Needle Biopsy
			Preoperative Localisation of Impalpable Lesions
		Breast Cancer Screening Programmes
			Introduction
			The Evidence for Population Screening
			Which Age Groups Should Be Screened?
			The Screening Process and Assessment
			Interval Cancers
			The Benefits and Harms of Breast Cancer Screening
		Conclusion
		Further Reading
	64 Reticuloendothelial Disorders
		Chapter Outline
		Epidemiology
			Age
			Infectious Agents
			Immunosuppression
			Genetic Factors
			Gender and Race
		Histopathological Classification
			Hodgkin Lymphoma
			Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma
		Staging, Investigation and Management
			Hodgkin Lymphoma
				Clinical Features and Staging
				Prognosis and Treatment
					Early-Stage Disease (Stages IA and IIA).
					Advanced-Stage Disease (Stages IIB, IIIA/B and IVA/B).
			Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma
				Clinical Features and Staging
				Prognosis and Treatment
		Lymph Node Disease in Lymphoma
			Imaging Nodal Disease
			Choice of Imaging Technique
			Neck
			Thorax
			Abdomen and Pelvis
		Extranodal Disease in Lymphoma
			Thorax
				Pulmonary Parenchymal Involvement
				Primary Pulmonary Lymphoma
				Pleural Disease
				Pericardium and Heart
				Thymus
				Chest Wall
				Breast
			Hepatobiliary System and Spleen
				Liver
				Spleen
			Gastrointestinal Tract
				Stomach
				Small Bowel
				Colon and Rectum
				Oesophagus
				Pancreas
			Genitourinary Tract
				Kidneys
				Bladder
				Prostate
				Testis
				Female Genital Tract
				Adrenal Glands
			Musculoskeletal System
				Bone Marrow
				Bone
			Central Nervous System
				Primary
				Secondary
				Orbit
			Head and Neck Lymphoma
				Waldeyer’s Ring
				Salivary Glands
				Thyroid
			Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue Lymphomas
			Burkitt Lymphoma
		Lymphoma in the Immunocompromised
			Lymphomas Associated With HIV (AIDS-Related Lymphomas)
			Post-transplant Lymphoproliferative Disorders
		Monitoring Response to Therapy
			Prognostication
			Residual Masses
				Computed Tomography
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Functional Imaging
			Response Criteria
				Computed Tomography Response Criteria
				FDG PET/CT Response Criteria
				FDG-PET/CT in Response Assessment
				Treatment Planning With FDG PET/CT
		Surveillance and Detection of Relapse
		Conclusion
		Further Reading
	65 Bone Marrow Disorders
		Chapter Outline
		Myeloproliferative Neoplasms
			Polycythaemia Vera
				Clinical Features
				Imaging Findings
			Primary Myelofibrosis
				Clinical Features
				Imaging Features
		Haematologic Malignancies
			Leukaemia
				Clinical Features
				Imaging Features
		Lymphoma
			Clinical Features
			Imaging Features
			Primary Bone Lymphoma
				Clinical Features
				Imaging Features
		Plasma Cell Dyscrasias
			Solitary Plasmacytoma of Bone
				Clinical Features
				Imaging Features
			Multiple Myeloma
				Clinical Features
				Imaging Features
		Miscellaneous Conditions
			Systemic Mastocytosis
				Clinical Features
				Imaging Features
			The Histiocytoses
			Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis
				Imaging Features
			Erdheim–Chester Disease
				Imaging Findings
		Further Reading
	66 Bone Marrow Disorders:
		Chapter Outline
		Disorders of Red Cells
			Physiological Marrow Reconversion
			The Anaemias
		The Myelodysplastic Syndromes
		The Haemoglobinopathies
			Thalassaemia
				Clinical Features
				Radiological Features
					Hypertransfusion.
					Iron chelation therapy.
					Bisphosphonate therapy.
			Sickle Cell Disease
				Clinical Features
				Radiological Features
					Marrow hyperplasia.
					Bone infarction.
					Osteomyelitis.
		Disorders of Blood Coagulation
			Haemophilia (Haemophilia A)
			Christmas Disease (Haemophilia B)
			Von Willebrand Disease
				Radiological Features
		Further Reading
	67 Imaging for Radiotherapy Planning
		Chapter Outline
		Types of Radiotherapy
			External Beam Radiotherapy
			Conventional External Beam Radiotherapy
			Three-Dimensional Conformal Radiotherapy
			Intensity-Modulated Radiotherapy
			Stereotactic Body Radiotherapy
			Brachytherapy
			Particle Therapy
		The Radiotherapy Pathway
			Target Volume Definition
			Clinical Volume Definition (Non-Imaging Based)
			Computed Tomography Simulation
			Image Fusion
			Dosimetry
			Delivery and Verification
		Image-Guided Radiotherapy
			Planar (Two-Dimensional) Imaging
			Volumetric (Three-Dimensional) Imaging
			Four-Dimensional Imaging
			Adaptive Radiotherapy
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging-Guided Radiotherapy
		Functional Imaging in the Radiotherapy Process
			Inclusion of Biological Information to the Treatment Process
		Radiomics
		Conclusion
		Further Reading
	68 Functional and Molecular Imaging for Personalized Medicine in Oncology
		Chapter Outline
		Personalised Medicine in Oncology
		Dynamic Contrast Enhanced- Computed Tomography
			Contrast Agent Kinetics
		Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Diffusion-Weighted Imaging
			Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
		Positron Emission Tomography
			Fluorodeoxyglucose Positron Emission Tomography
			Non-Fluorodeoxyglucose Positron Emission Tomography Tracers
		Emerging Molecular Imaging Techniques and Theranostics
			Ultrasound
			Optical Imaging
		Conclusion: Role of Functional and Molecular Imaging in Oncology
		Further Reading
SECTION G Paediatric Imaging
	69 Current Status of Paediatric Imaging
		Chapter Outline
		Projection Radiography
		Fluoroscopy
		Ultrasound
		Computed Tomography
			320-Row Multidetector Computed Tomography
			Dual-Source Computed Tomography
			Dual-Energy Computed Tomography
			Radiation Dose Considerations
			Patient Care
			Dental Cone Beam Computed Tomography
		Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Patient Preparation
			Radiofrequency Coils
			Motion Artefact Reduction
			Tissue Contrast
			Image Resolution
			Imaging Planes
			Practical Consequences
		Nuclear Medicine
		Further Reading
	70 The Neonatal and Paediatric Chest
		Chapter Outline
		The Neonatal Chest
			Normal Anatomy and Artefacts
			Normal Lung Development
			Idiopathic Respiratory Distress Syndrome
			Transient Tachypnoea of the Newborn
			Meconium Aspiration Syndrome
			Neonatal Pneumonia
			Air Leaks
			Pleural Effusions
			Surfactant Dysfunction Disorders
			Lines and Tubes
		The Chest in Older Children
			The Chest Radiograph
			Normal Variants
			Cardiac or Respiratory?
			The Lungs
				Pulmonary Infection
				Bacterial Versus Viral
				Features of Infection
					Round Pneumonia
					Necrotising/Cavitary Pneumonia
				Specific Infections
					Tuberculosis
					Mycoplasma pneumoniae
				Late Complications of Infection
					Pleural Effusion
				The Acutely Wheezing Child
					Asthma
					Inhaled Foreign Bodies
					Stridor
				Congenital Chest Abnormalities
					Bronchopulmonary Foregut Malformations
					Congenital Thoracic Cysts
					Congenital Pulmonary Airway Malformations
					Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
					Pulmonary Sequestration
					Congenital Lobar Overinflation
					Bronchial Atresia
					Lung Agenesis–Hypoplasia Complex
					Congenital Venolobar Syndrome—Scimitar Syndrome
				Malignancy
					Mediastinal Masses
						Anterior mediastinum.
						Middle mediastinum.
						Posterior mediastinum.
					Pulmonary and Endobronchial Tumours
					Chest Wall Tumours
					Cystic Fibrosis
					Immunodeficiency
						Human immunodeficiency virus.
						Infectious pulmonary complications of immunodeficiency
							Pneumocystis jiroveci (carinii) pneumonia.
							Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis.
						Non-infectious pulmonary complications
							Lymphoproliferative disease and lymphocytic interstitial pneumonia.
							Diffuse alveolar haemorrhage.
							Idiopathic pneumonia syndrome.
		New techniques in paediatric respiratory imaging
			Lung ultrasound
			Lung MRI
			Summary
		Further Reading
	71 Paediatric Abdominal Imaging
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
			Visible Abnormalities of the Anterior Abdominal Wall
				Gastroschisis
				Omphalocele
				Bladder Exstrophy—Epispadias—Cloacal Exstrophy Complex
			The Choking Neonate
				Oesophageal Atresia and Tracheo-Oesophageal Fistula
					Post-surgery imaging.
			The Vomiting Neonate
			Non-Bilious Vomiting
				Obstruction of the Stomach
				Enteric Duplication Cysts
				Gastric Perforation
			Bilious Vomiting
				Small Bowel Malrotation and Volvulus
				Management
				Duodenal Atresia and Stenosis
				Small Bowel Atresia and Stenosis
			Neonatal Abdominal Distension
				Necrotising Enterocolitis
				Intra-abdominal Lymphatic Malformation
				Megacystis–Microcolon–Intestinal Hypoperistalsis (Berdon) Syndrome
			Delayed Passage of Meconium
				Hirschsprung Disease
				Functional Immaturity of the Colon and Meconium Plug Syndrome
				Meconium Ileus
				Colon Atresia
				Distal Ileal Atresia
				Anorectal and Cloacal Malformations
		The Infant and Older Child
			Abdominal Pain
				Acute Appendicitis
				Mesenteric Lymphadenitis
				Inflammatory Bowel Disease
					Ultrasonography.
					Conventional barium studies.
					Magnetic resonance imaging.
					Computed tomography.
				Intussusception
					Small bowel intussusception.
				Constipation
				Intestinal Motility Disorders
				Henoch–Schönlein Purpura
			Abdominal Distension
				Enteric Duplication Cysts
				Mesenteric Cysts
			Non-Bilious Vomiting
				Gastro-Oesophageal Reflux Disease
				Organoaxial Torsion and Gastric Volvulus
				Malrotation With Chronic Intestinal Obstruction or Intermittent Volvulus
				Hypertrophic Pyloric Stenosis
			Omphalomesenteric (Vitelline) Duct Remnants
				Meckel Diverticulum
			Gastrointestinal Malignancies
		The Immunocompromised Child
		Abdominal Manifestations of Cystic Fibrosis
		Abdominal Trauma
		The Liver
			Imaging Techniques
				Ultrasonography
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Computed Tomography
				Angiography
			Imaging Anatomy
			Liver Involvement in Congenital Malformation and Infections, Syndromes and Systemic Conditions
			Non-Obstructive Jaundice
			Infection
			Chronic Liver Disease
				Cirrhosis
				Fibrosis
				Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
				Fibropolycystic Liver Disease
				Suprahepatic Chronic Liver Disease
			Portal Vein
				Portosystemic Shunts
				Extrahepatic Portal Vein Occlusion
				Portal Hypertension
				Portal Venous Gas
				Preduodenal Portal Vein
			Mass Lesions
				Imaging Features
				Hepatoblastoma (Fig. 71.47)
				Vascular Neoplasms
				Mesenchymal Hamartoma (Fig. 71.48)
				Liver Metastases
			Trauma
			Transplant
		Biliary System
			Imaging Techniques
			Imaging Anatomy
			Jaundice
				Biliary Atresia (Fig. 71.50)
				Choledochal Malformation (Choledochal Cyst; Fig. 71.51)
				Inspissated Bile
				Persistent Intrahepatic Cholestasis
			Sludge and Gallstones
			Spontaneous Perforation of the Bile Ducts
			Cholangitis
			Sclerosing Cholangitis
			Neoplasia
		Pancreas
			Imaging Techniques
			Imaging Anatomy
			Congenital Abnormalities and Associations
				Pancreas Divisum (Fig. 71.52)
				Annular Pancreas (Fig. 71.53)
				Other
			Systemic Disorders
				Cystic Fibrosis (Fig. 71.54)
				Other
			Pancreatitis
			Trauma
			Congenital Hyperinsulinism
			Neoplasms
		Spleen
			Imaging Techniques
			Imaging Anatomy
			Imaging Findings
				Splenomegaly
				Wandering Spleen
				Focal Lesions
				Calcifications
			Lateralisation Disorders (Fig. 71.59)
			Infarction
			Trauma
			Neoplasia
		Further Reading
	72 Imaging of the Kidneys, Urinary Tract and Pelvis in Children
		Chapter Outline
		Overview
		Imaging Techniques
			Plain Radiography
			Ultrasound
			Standard Technique
			Normal Gonadal Imaging in Girls
			Normal Gonadal Imaging in Boys
			Cystography
				Micturating (Voiding) Cystogram (MCUG/VCUG)
					Indications.
					Micturating cystourethrography technique.
				Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasonography
					Technique.
			Nuclear Medicine
				Direct Radio-Isotope Cystogram
					Technique.
				Indirect Radio-Isotope Cystogram
				Static Renal Scintigraphy Using 99mTc-Dimercaptosuccinic Acid
				Dynamic Renography
					Technique.
			Urography (Plain Radiograph and Intravenous Urogram)
			Computed Tomography
				Method
			Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Method
			Interventional Procedures
				Angiography
				Antegrade Pyelogram
				Nephrostomy
				Retrograde Pyelogram
				Renal Biopsy
		Congenital Anomalies
			Renal Anomalies
				Renal Agenesis
				Abnormal Migration and Fusion of the Kidneys
				Renal Ectopia
				Abnormalities With Renal Fusion
				Cross Fused Renal Ectopia
				Duplex Kidneys
					Imaging
				Anomalies of the Renal Pelvis and Ureter
				Pelviureteric Junction Obstruction
					Imaging
				Megaureter and Hydroureter
					Imaging
				Bladder Anomalies
				Prune-Belly Syndrome
				Functional Bladder Disturbance and Neurogenic Bladder
			Urethral Anomalies
				Posterior Urethral Valves
					Imaging
					Anterior Urethral Abnormalities
					Urethral Stricture
					Rectourethral Fistula
					Duplication of the Urethra
			Uterus and Vagina
				Undescended Testis
		Antenatal Diagnosis of Pelvicalyceal and/or Ureteral Distention
			Prenatal Diagnosis of Congenital Abnormalities of the Renal/Urological Tract (CAKUT) and Differential Diagnosis
			Bilateral Renal Pelvic Dilatation
			Unilateral Renal Pelvic Dilatation
			Megaureter
			Renal Failure
			Renal Vein Thrombosis
			Urinary Tract Infection and Vesicoureteric Reflux
				Clinical Setting
				Imaging
				Renal Abscess
				Xanthogranulomatous Pyelonephritis
		Renal Cystic Disease
			Cystic Dysplasia
			Multicystic Dysplastic Kidney
			Simple Cysts
			Localised Cystic Disease of the Kidney
			Acquired Cystic Renal Disease
				Genetic Cystic Disease
			Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease
				Imaging
			Tuberous Sclerosis
			Autosomal Recessive Polycystic Kidney Disease
			Juvenile Nephronophthisis/Medullary Cystic Disease
				Imaging
			Nephrocalcinosis
		Renal Calculi
		Tumours
			Benign Tumours
				Nephroblastomatosis
				Mesoblastic Nephroma
				Multilocular Cystic Nephroma
				Angiomyolipoma
			Malignant Tumours
				Wilms Tumour
				Clear Cell Sarcoma of the Kidney
				Rhabdoid Tumour of the Kidney
				Renal Cell Carcinoma
				Lymphoma and Leukaemia
				Rhabdomyosarcoma
			Inflammatory Diseases of the Scrotum
				Testicular Torsion
			Scrotal Masses
			Ovarian Masses
				Ovarian Cysts
				Torsion of the Ovaries and Adnexa
				Ovarian Tumours
			Presacral Masses
		Hypertension
		Trauma
		Renal Transplantation
			Pre-Transplantation
			Post-Transplantation
		Further Reading
	73 Skeletal Radiology in Children
		Chapter Outline
		Constitutional Disorders of Bone
			Nomenclature
			Prevalence
			Diagnosis
			Imaging
				Prenatal Screening and Investigation
				Imaging for Diagnosis
				Imaging for Complications
			Management
			Genetic Counselling
			Osteochondrodysplasias
			Chromosomal Disorders
				Trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome)
				45XO (Turner Syndrome)
		Localised Disorders of the Skeleton
			Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip
			Idiopathic Avascular Necrosis of the Femoral Head (Perthes Disease)
			Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis
			Femoral Dysplasia (Idiopathic Coxa Vara/Proximal Focal Femoral Deficiency Spectrum)
				Idiopathic Coxa Vara
				Proximal Focal Femoral Deficiency
			Tibia Vara and Tibial Bowing
			Talipes
			Madelung Deformity
			Radial Dysplasia
			Sprengel Deformity (Congenital Elevation of the Scapula)
			Scoliosis
		Neurocutaneous Syndromes
			Neurofibromatosis
			Tuberous Sclerosis
		Inflammatory Disorders
			Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis
			Juvenile Dermatomyositis
			Chronic Recurrent Multifocal Osteomyelitis
		Non-Inflammatory Disorders
			Haemophilia
			Pigmented Villonodular Synovitis
			Synovial Osteochondromatosis
		Metabolic and Endocrine Disorders
			Rickets
				Vitamin D Deficiency Rickets
				Vitamin D-Dependent Rickets
				Vitamin D-Resistant (Hypophosphataemic) Rickets
				Renal Osteodystrophy
				Tumour Rickets
			Other Dietary Deficiencies and Toxicity
				Scurvy
				Fluorosis
				Lead Poisoning
			Endocrine Disorders
				Hyperparathyroidism
				Hypoparathyroidism
				Pseudohypoparathyroidism and Pseudo-Pseudohypoparathyroidism
				Hypothyroidism
		Haemoglobinopathies
			Sickle Cell Disease
			Thalassaemia
		Storage Disorders
			Gaucher Disease
		Infection of the Bones and Joints
			Osteomyelitis
			Infective Arthritis
			Infection of the Spine (Discitis and Osteomyelitis)
		Acknowledgements
		Further Reading
	74 Paediatric Musculoskeletal Trauma and the Radiology of Nonaccidental Injury and Paediatric Factures
		Chapter Outline
		Physeal Injuries
		The Upper Limb
			Shoulder/Humerus
			Elbow
			Forearm/Wrist/Hand
		The Lower Limb
			Pelvis
			Acetabular, Hip and Femur
			Knee
			Tibia/Ankle/Foot
				Tibia
				Ankle
				Foot
		Cervical Spinal Injuries
		Nonaccidental Injury
		Clinical Presentation and the Role of the Radiologist
		Injury Patterns
			Shaken Baby Syndrome
		General Imaging Strategies
		Skeletal Injury
			The Skeletal Survey
				Bone Scintigraphy
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Ultrasound
			Fracture Patterns in Accidental Versus Nonaccidental Injury
				Rib Fractures
				Metaphyseal Injury
				Long Bone Fractures
				Unusual Fractures
			Fracture Healing
			Differential Diagnosis
				Birth Trauma
				Accidental Injury
				Generalised Bone Disease
		Brain Injuries
			Pathophysiology of Skull, Brain and Spinal Canal Lesions
			Imaging in Abusive Head Trauma
			Skull Fractures
			Extra-Axial Haemorrhages
			Diffuse Hypoxic-Ischaemic Lesions
			Spine Injuries
			Strategy and Prognosis
		Further Reading
	75 Bone Tumours and Neuroblastoma in Children
		Chapter Outline
		Bone Tumours
			Malignant Bone Tumours
				Osteosarcoma
				The Ewing Sarcoma Family of Tumours
				Bone Metastases
				Rare Malignant Bone Tumours in Children
			Benign Bone Tumours
				Bone-Forming Tumours
					Osteoid Osteoma
					Osteoblastoma
				Tumours of Fibrous Tissue Origin
					Non-ossifying Fibroma and Metaphyseal Fibrous Cortical Defects (Synonyms: Fibroxanthoma, Benign Fibrous Histiocytoma)
					Fibrous Bone Dysplasia
					Osteofibrous Bone Dysplasia
				Cartilage-Forming Tumours
					Osteochondroma (Exostosis)
					Chondroblastoma
				Vascular and Other Connective Tissue Tumours
					Myofibromatosis
					Gorham Disease
				Locally Aggressive Tumours
					Chondromyxoid Fibroma
				Tumour-like Lesions
					Simple Bone Cyst (Synonyms: Juvenile, Solitary or Unicameral Bone Cyst)
					Aneurysmal Bone Cyst
					Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis
		Neuroblastoma
			Imaging
				Radiographs
				Ultrasound
				Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Radionuclide Radiology
				Other Imaging Techniques
			Neuroblastoma Staging
			Differential Diagnosis
		Further Reading
	76 Paediatric Neuroradiology
		Chapter Outline
		Normal Brain Maturation
			Normal Myelination
			Normal Gyral Development
			Other Postnatal Maturational Changes
		Brain Malformations and Developmental Abnormalities
			Posterior Fossa Abnormalities
				Cerebellar Hypoplasia
				Dandy–Walker Malformation and Its Variants
				Joubert Syndrome and Related Disorders
				Other Posterior Fossa Malformations or Developmental Disorders
					Rhombencephalosynapsis.
					Pontine tegmental cap dysplasia.
					Lhermitte–Duclos or dysplastic cerebellar gangliocytoma.
				Chiari II Malformation
				Chiari I Malformation
				Supratentorial Abnormalities
				Disorders of Dorsal Induction
					Anencephaly.
					Cephalocele.
					Chiari II malformation (Arnold–Chiari).
				Disorders of Ventral Induction
					Holoprosencephaly.
				Malformations of Commissural and Related Structures
					Agenesis of the septum pellucidum.
					Commissural agenesis or dysgenesis.
					Agenesis of the corpus callosum.
					Agenesis of the corpus callosum with interhemispheric cyst.
				Malformations of Cortical Development—Histogenesis, Neuronal Migration and Cortical Organisation
				Polymicrogyria
				Schizencephaly
				Lissencephaly–Agyria–Pachygyria
				Grey Matter Heterotopia
				Hemimegalencephaly
				Focal Cortical Dysplasia
		Neurocutaneous Syndromes
			Neurofibromatosis Type 1
			Tuberous Sclerosis
			Sturge–Weber Syndrome
			Neurofibromatosis Type 2
			Other Neurocutaneous Syndromes
		Spinal Malformations
			Normal Development
			Definitions
			Open Spinal Dysraphism
			Closed Spinal Dysraphism
			Dorsal Dermal Sinus
			Diastematomyelia
			Neurenteric Cysts
			Disorders of the Caudal Cell Mass/Caudal Regression Syndrome
			Segmental Spinal Dysgenesis
		Inborn Metabolic Brain Disorders
		Craniosynostosis
		Neonatal Nasal Obstruction: Nasal Cavity Stenosis/Atresia
			Choanal Atresia and Pyriform Stenosis
			Skeletal Dysplasias
		Brain Tumours
			The Children’s Cancer and Leukaemia Group Guidelines
			Posterior Fossa Tumours
			Suprasellar Tumours
				Craniopharyngioma
			Hypothalamic–Optic Pathway Glioma
			Infundibular Tumours
			Pituitary Tumours
			Pineal Region Tumours
				Central Nervous System Germ Cell Tumours
				Primary Pineal Tumours: Pineoblastoma and Pineocytoma
			Supratentorial Hemispheric Tumours
			Astrocytomas
			Ependymomas
			Supratentorial Embryonal Tumour With Multilayered Rosettes
			Desmoplastic Infantile Astrocytoma/Desmoplastic Infantile Gangliogliomas
			Choroid Plexus Tumours
			Dysembryoplastic Neuroepithelial Tumours
		Cerebrovascular Disease and Stroke
		Hypoxic Ischaemic Injury in the Developing Brain
			Introduction
			Patterns of Brain Injury in the Preterm Neonate
			Periventricular White Matter Injury or ‘Leukomalacia’
			Brain Haemorrhagic Disease
			Encephalopathy of Term Neonate—Patterns of Injury
		Miscellaneous Acquired Toxic or Metabolic Disease
		Intracranial and Intraspinal Infections
			Congenital Infections Toxoplasmosis, Rubella, Cytomegalovirus, Herpes Simplex (TORCH)
			Meningitis
				Pathophysiology
				Uncomplicated Meningitis
				Imaging of Complications (Table 76.5)
			Tuberculous Infection
			Bacterial Infection: Cerebritis and Abscess Formation
			Neurocysticercosis
			Viral Encephalitis
			Infection in Immunocompromised Children
			Spinal Infections
			Brain and Cord Inflammation
		Trauma
			Birth Trauma
			Growing Skull Fractures
			Spinal Trauma
			Atlantoaxial Rotatory Fixation
			Abusive Head Trauma
		Hydrocephalus
		Summary
		Further Reading
SECTION H Interventional Radiology
	77 Current Status of Imaging for Interventional Procedures
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
		Computed Tomography Angiography in Clinical Practice
		Dual-Energy Computed Tomography Angiography
		Magnetic Resonance Angiography in Clinical Practice
		Computed Tomography Angiography or Magnetic Resonance Angiography: Safety, Preference and Ease of Use
		Imaging in Specific Conditions
			Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm Assessment for Suitability for Endovascular Repair and Postintervention Follow-Up
			Assessing the Aorta for Other Pathological Conditions
		Renovascular Hypertension
		Assessment of the Mesenteric Vasculature: Acute and Chronic Mesenteric Ischaemia and Acute Gastrointestinal Bleeding
			Acute and Chronic Mesenteric Ischaemia
				Acute Mesenteric Ischaemia
				Chronic Mesenteric Ischaemia
		Computed Tomography Angiography for Acute Gastrointestinal Bleeding
			Diagnosis of Pulmonary Embolism: D Dimer, the Wells Criteria and Computed Tomography Pulmonary Angiography and Magnetic Resonance Angiography
		Computed Tomography Angiography and Magnetic Resonance Angiography for Pulmonary Embolism
		Other Pulmonary Conditions
		Diagnosis of Stroke: Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance
		Diagnosis of Acute Arterial Wall Dissection
		Elucidating the Source of Embolic Stroke
		Subclavian Steal Syndrome
		Peripheral Vascular Disease
			Preintervention Imaging With Computed Tomography Angiography and Magnetic Resonance Angiography
		Computed Tomography Angiography
		Magnetic Resonance Angiography
			Arteriovenous Malformations
		Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance for Planning of Percutaneous Biopsy, Abscess Drainage and Tumour Ablation
		Further Reading
	78 Angiography
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
		Angiographic Technique
			Preparation
			Arterial Puncture
			Antegrade Versus Retrograde Puncture
		Equipment
			Sheaths
			Guidewires
			Catheters
		Closure Devices
		Contrast Medium
			Iodinated Contrast Media
			Alternative Contrast Agents
				Gadolinium
				CO2 Angiography
		Complications of Angiography
			Bleeding
			False Aneurysm
			Other Complications
		Further Reading
	79 Aortic Intervention
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
		Perioperative Management Including Infrastructure and Staffing
		Stent-Grafts and Basic Principles of Stent-Grafting
		Thoracic Aortic Intervention
			Anatomical Considerations
			Thoracic Aortic Aneurysm
			Outcomes of Endovascular Repair and Comparison With Surgery
		Acute Aortic Syndrome
			Thoracic Aortic Dissection
			Complicated Type B Dissection
			Chronic Dissection and Aneurysmal Development
				Outcomes of Endovascular Repair and Comparison With Surgery
			Acute Intramural Haematoma and Penetrating Ulcer
		Traumatic Lesions of the Thoracic Aorta
			Blunt Traumatic Injury to the Thoracic Aorta
			Penetrating Injury to the Thoracic Aorta
			Aortic Coarctation
		Abdominal Aortic Intervention
			Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm
			Anatomical Considerations in Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm Repair
			Risks and Timing of Repair
			Outcomes of Endovascular Repair and Comparison With Surgery for Elective Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm Repair
			Endovascular Repair of Ruptured Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm
			Aortic Stenoses and Occlusions
			Traumatic Abdominal Aortic Injuries
			Thoraco-Abdominal Aneurysms
		Surveillance Imaging and Complications
		Endoleak
			Type 1 Endoleak (See Fig. 79.28)
			Type 2 Endoleak (See Fig. 79.30)
			Type 3 Endoleak (See Fig. 79.32)
			Types 4 and 5 Endoleaks
		Device Migration, Dislocation, Kinking and Occlusion
		Graft Infection (See Fig. 79.33)
		Summary and Conclusion
		Further Reading
	80 Peripheral Vascular Disease Intervention
		Chapter Outline
		Interventional Radiology Techniques
			Angioplasty
			Stenting
			Embolisation
			Thrombolysis
		Arterial System
			Pelvic and Lower Extremity Arteries
				Angiographic Anatomy
					Arterial Disease Affecting the Lower Extremity
					Diagnosis
				Treatment of Chronic Limb Ischaemia
					Iliac Artery Disease
						Stenosis.
						Occlusions.
					Common Femoral Artery and Profunda Femoris
					Superficial Femoral Artery
						Stenosis.
						Occlusions.
					Popliteal Artery
					Calf Vessels
				Treatment of Acute Lower Limb Ischaemia
			Upper Extremity Arteries
				Anatomy
				Pathology
				Endovascular Treatment
			Gastrointestinal System
				Angiography
					Mesenteric Haemorrhage
					Visceral Artery Aneurysms
					Occlusive Mesenteric Vascular Disease
				Bronchial Artery Embolisation
			The Carotid Arteries
				Imaging
				Angiography
				Endovascular Treatment of Carotid Artery Stenosis
		Venous System
			Lower Extremity Venous System
				Imaging Assessment
				Endovascular Treatment of Iliofemoral Deep Venous Thrombosis
			Upper Extremity Venous Obstruction
			Superior Vena Cava Disease
			Inferior Vena Cava Filters
			Complications of Endovascular Procedures
		Further Reading
	81 Image-Guided Biopsy and Ablation Techniques
		Chapter Outline
		Image-Guided Biopsy
			Introduction
			Principles of Image-Guided Biopsy
				Case Selection
				Preprocedural Assessment
				Core Biopsy Versus Fine-Needle Aspiration
			Biopsy Needles
				Fine-Needle Aspiration Cytology Needles
				Core Biopsy Needles
				Core Biopsy Needles
					Semiautomatic, For Example Temno, SuperCore (Fig. 81.1)
					Fully Automatic, For Example Achieve, BioPince, Bard Max-Core (Fig. 81.3)
					Menghini Technique Biopsy Needles, For Example Surecut
				Coaxial Technique
			Imaging Modalities for Biopsy
				Ultrasound
				Computed Tomography
				Magnetic Resonance Imaging
				Positron Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography
				Fluoroscopy
				Stereotactic
			Tips and Tricks
				‘Look Before you Leap’—Procedural Set-Up
				Avoiding Inadequate Samples
				Improving Needle Tip Visualisation in Ultrasound-Guided Biopsy
			Postprocedural Care
			Specimen Handling
			Complications and Safety Issues
				Track Seeding
			Summary
		Image-Guided Tumour Ablation
			The Case for Tumour Ablation
			The Principles of Tumour Ablation
			Ablative Energies
				Radiofrequency Ablation
				Microwave Ablation
				Cryoablation
				Focused Ultrasound
				Irreversible Electroporation
				Interstitial Laser Photocoagulation
				Chemical Ablation
			Image Guidance
				Preprocedural Planning
			Procedural Targetting
			Periprocedural Monitoring
			Postprocedural Imaging
			Understanding and Modifying Tumour Pathophysiology
			Specifics and Current Outcomes
				Renal Cancer
				Hepatocellular Carcinoma
				Colorectal Liver Metastases
				Lung Tumour Ablation
				Bone Tumour Ablation
			Continuity of Care
			Summary
		Further Reading
	82 Image-Guided Drainage Techniques
		Chapter Outline
		Indications and Contraindications
			Management of Anticoagulant Medication Prior to Percutaneous Drainage
		Imaging Guidance
		Patient Preparation and Care
		Catheter Insertion
		Catheter Management
		Specific Drainage Techniques
			Chest
			Hepatic Parenchyma
			Pancreas and Peripancreatic Region
			Gallbladder
			Spleen
			Subphrenic Collections
			Peritoneum
			Deep Pelvic Collections
			Organ Traversal
			Paediatric Patients
			Complications
		Conclusion
		Further Reading
	83 Hepatobiliary Intervention
		Chapter Outline
		Management of Biliary Obstruction
			Introduction
			Background
			Percutaneous Transhepatic Cholangiography
			Biliary Drainage: External, Internal–External
			Biliary Stenting: Metal, Plastic
			Benign Disease
				Benign Strictures
				Calculous Disease
			Percutaneous Biliary Intervention Complications
		Vascular Interventional Techniques in the Liver
			Chemoembolisation
				Background
				Indications
				Transarterial Chemoembolisation Contraindications
				Preprocedure Medication/Sedation/Analgesia
				Performing the Procedure
				Postprocedure Complications
				Imaging Post Chemoembolisation
				Transarterial Chemoembolisation Literature
			Radioembolisation
				Background
				Patient Selection
				Performing the Procedure: Planning
				90Y Administration
				90Y Complications
				Imaging Post Radioembolisation
				Radioembolisation Results
			Hepatic Arterial Embolisation for Haemorrhage
			Transjugular Intrahepatic Portosystemic Shunt
				Background
				Imaging
				Preprocedure Evaluation
				Performing the Procedure
				Post Procedure
				Complications
			Portal Vein Embolisation
				Background
				Performing the Procedure
			Hepatic Venous Interventions: Budd–Chiari Syndrome
				Background
				Diagnosis
				Treatment
		Further Reading
	84 Vascular Genitourinary Tract Intervention
		Chapter Outline
		Kidney
			Renal Artery Stenosis
				Background
				Aetiology and Pathology
				Diagnosis of Renal Artery Stenosis
				Atheromatous Renovascular Disease
					Clinical presentation of atheromatous renovascular disease.
					Treatment of atheromatous renovascular disease.
					Renal revascularisation trials.
				Technique for Renal Artery Angioplasty and Stenting
					Renal artery angioplasty.
					Renal artery stenting.
					Fibromuscular disease.
					Takayasu arteritis.
					Neurofibromatosis.
					Williams syndrome.
			Renal Denervation
				Background
				Pathophysiology
				Technique
				Results
			Renal Tumours
				Benign
				Malignant
			Renal Arteriovenous Malformation
			Renal Artery Aneurysms
				Technique
		Trauma Embolisation (Table 84.4)
			Kidney
			Ureter
			Bladder
		Prostatic Artery Embolisation
			Technique
		Fibroid Embolisation
			Uterine Artery Embolisation
				Treatment Options
				Imaging
				Technique
				Safety and Efficacy
		Obstetric Haemorrhage
			Postpartum Haemorrhage
				Causes of Postpartum Haemorrhage
				Management of Postpartum Haemorrhage
				Technique
				Abnormal Placentation
					Management of abnormal placentation.
				Complications of Embolisation and Balloon Occlusion
				Results of Haemorrhage Control for Postpartum Haemorrhage
				Ectopic Pregnancy and Spontaneous Abortion
		Pelvic Congestion Syndrome
			Treatment
		Varicocele
			Treatment
		Further Reading
	85 Non-Vascular Genitourinary Tract Intervention
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
		Percutaneous Renal Access— Important Anatomical Factors
			Renal Position
			Relations of the Kidney
			Pelvicalyceal Anatomy of the Kidney
			Renal Vascular Anatomy
			Other Anatomical Factors Important for Renal Access
			Renal Anatomy and Percutaneous Entry
		General Equipment for Renal Access
			Access Needle
			Guidewires
			Catheters
		Percutaneous Nephrostomy (PCN)
			Techniques
				Patient Preparation and Procedure
				Single Puncture Ultrasound-Guided Percutaneous Nephrostomy (PCN)
				Single Puncture Fluoroscopically Guided Percutaneous Nephrostomy (PCN)
				Double Puncture Combined Ultrasound and Fluoroscopy-Guided Percutaneous Nephrostomy (PCN)
				Computed Tomography–Guided Nephrostomy
				Catheter Fixation and Removal
			Difficult or Complicated Nephrostomy
				Non-Dilated Kidneys
				Horseshoe Kidney
				Transplant Kidney
				Paediatric Nephrostomy
				Pregnancy
			Complications of Percutaneous Nephrostomy (PCN) and Management
		Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy (PCNL)
			Technique of Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy (PCNL)
			Tract Planning
				Tract Dilatation
			Complications of Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy and Management
		Antegrade Ureteric Stents
			Indications for Ureteric Stents
			Ureteric Stents Versus Percutaneous Nephrostomy
			Types of Ureteric Stents
				Plastic Stents
				Metal Stents
				Pathological and Functional Changes After Stenting
				Clinical Efficacy of Current Stents
			Practical Aspects of Antegrade Stenting
			Technique of Antegrade Stenting
				Stent Lumen Size
				Stent Length
				Type of Stent
				Insertion of a Plastic Stent
				Insertion of a Metal Ureteric Stent
			Further Issues About Ureteric Stents
				Retroperitoneal Looping of Stent/Wire
				False Passage Created During Stricture Cannulation
				Stenting of Ureteroileal or Ureterocolic Anastomosis
				Tortuous Ureter
				Tight or Rigid Stricture
				A Stent Cannot Be Advanced Across the Stricture, Even After Dilatation
				Improvement in Stent Position
				The Thread Loops Will Not Disengage
			Extra-Anatomical Stenting
		Monitoring Ureteric Stents
			Exchanging or Removing Stents
		Balloon Dilatation of Ureteric Strictures
		Treatment of Urinary Leaks and Fistulas
		Suprapubic Bladder Catherisation
		Managing a Non-Deflatable Urinary Catheter Balloon
		Percutaneous Cystolithotripsy (PCCL)
		Interventional Procedures in the Prostate Gland and Seminal Vesicles
			Drainage of Prostate and Perirectal Abscess
			Seminal Vesiculography and Cyst Sampling
			Insertion of Prostate Fiducials and Absorbable Hydrogel Spacer
			Prostate Brachytherapy, Cryotherapy and Prostate Ablation
		Ablation of Renal Cysts or Lymphoceles
		Further Reading
	86 Venous Access and Interventions
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
		Prior General Assessment
		General Patient and Interventional Suite Preparation
		Central Venous Catheters
			Tunnelled Central Venous Catheter: Hickman Line
			Tunnelled Central Venous Catheter: Groshong Catheter
			Tunnelled Central Venous Catheter: Totally Implantable Vascular Access Device
			Tunnelled Central Venous Catheter: the Haemodialysis Catheter
				Translumbar Dialysis Catheter Insertion
				Transhepatic Dialysis Catheter Insertion
			Peripherally Inserted Central Catheters
		Complications and Their Management
			Short-Term Complications
				Haemorrhage
				Inadvertent Arterial Puncture
				Air Embolism
				Pleural Puncture
				Arrhythmias
				Laceration of Central Veins
			Long-Term Complications
				Infection
				Fibrin Sheath
				Thrombosis
				Tip Malposition
				Catheter Kinks/Fractures
		Diagnostic Evaluation
		Further Reading
	87 Skeletal Interventions
		Chapter Outline
		Introduction
		Image-Guided Bone Biopsy
			Patient Preparation
			Bone Biopsy Techniques
			Performing the Procedure
			Results
		Spinal Infiltration Procedures
			Lumbar Disc Herniation
			Indications
			Technique
			Complications
		Radiofrequency for Pain Management
			Pulsed Radiofrequency Ablation
			Facet Joint Syndrome
				Technique
				Cervical Spine Procedures
		Percutaneous Discectomy
			Technique
		Percutaneous Vertebral Augmentation
		Osteoplasty and Osteosynthesis
		Ablation of Bone Tumours
			Complications
			Osteoid Osteomas
		Embolisation of Bone Tumours
		Neuromodulation and Neurostimulation
		Further Reading




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