GPS and GNSS for Land Surveyors

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Contents
Preface to the Fifth Edition
About the Author
Chapter 1: The Signal
	The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Signal
		GNSS and Trilateration
		A Passive System
		Time
		Control
		Atmosphere
		At Least Four
		Satellite ID
		Codes
		Wavelength and Frequency
		The NAV Messages
	The Precise P(Y) and Coarse/Acquisition (C/A) Codes
		P Code
		The C/A Code
		Standard Positioning Service (SPS) and Precise Positioning Service (PPS)
		Time, UTC, and TAI
		GPS Time
		Satellite Clocks
		GPS Week
		Julian Date
		The Broadcast Ephemeris
		Atmospheric Correction
		The Almanac
		Satellite Health
		Telemetry and Hand Over Words
	The Production of a Modulated Carrier Wave
		EDM Ranging
		GNSS Ranging
		Oscillators
	A Chain of Electromagnetic Energy
		Phase Shift
	Two Observables
		Encoding by Phase Modulation
	Pseudoranging
		Propagation Delay
		Code Correlation
	Autocorrelation
	Correlation Peak
	Lock and the Time Shift
		Imperfect Oscillators
	A Pseudorange Equation
	A 1-Percent Rule of Thumb
	Carrier-Phase Ranging
		The Integer Ambiguity Problem
	Carrier-Phase Comparisons
		Beat
	The Doppler Effect
		GNSS and the Doppler Effect
		A Carrier-Phase Approximation
		An Illustration of the Integer Ambiguity Problem
	Exercises
	Answers and Explanations
Chapter 2: Biases and Solutions
	Biases
		A Look at the Error Budget
		User Equivalent Range Error
	The Ionospheric Effect, dion
		Ionized Plasma
		Ionosphere and the Sun
		Ionospheric Stratification
		The Ionospheric Effect
		Group Delay and Phase Delay
		Different Frequencies Are Affected Differently
		Broadcast Correction
	The Satellite Clock Bias, dt
		Relativistic Effects on the Satellite Clock
		Satellite Clock Drift
	The Receiver Clock Bias, dT
		Typical Receiver Clocks
	The Orbital Bias, dp
	The Tropospheric Effect, dtrop
	Multipath
		Limiting the Effect of Multipath
		Antenna Design and Multipath
	Receiver Noise
	Some Methods of Data Collection
		Static and Kinematic
		Single Point
		Relative Positioning
	Differencing
		Between-Receivers Single Difference
		Between-Satellites Single Difference
	Double Difference
	Triple Difference
		Repairing Cycle Slips
		Components of the Carrier-Phase Observable
	Post-Processing
		Correlation of Biases
		Organization Is Essential
	Control
	Least-Squares Adjustment
	Network Adjustment
	Using an Online Processing Service
	Summary
	Exercises
	Answers and Explanations
Chapter 3: The Framework
	Technological Forerunners
		Consolidation
	Terrestrial Radio Positioning
		Satellite Advantages
	Optical Systems
	Extraterrestrial Radio Positioning
		Minitrack
	Very Long Baseline Interferometry
	TRANSIT
		System 621B and Timation
	NAVSTAR
		Requirements
		Secure, Passive, and Global
		Expense and Frequency Allocation
		Large Capacity Signal
		The Satellite Constellation
		The Perfect System?
	GPS in Civilian Surveying
		Federal Specifications
		Interferometry
	GPS Segments
		The Space Segment
	GPS Constellation
		Orbital Period
		Dilution of Precision
		Satellite Positions in Mission Planning
		Satellite Blocks
		Satellite Names
		GPS Satellites
	The GPS Operational Control System (OCS)
		Kalman Filtering
	The User Segment
	Exercises
	Answers and Explanations
Chapter 4: Receivers and Methods
	Common Features of GPS Receivers
		Receivers for GNSS Surveying
	The Antenna
		Bandwidth
		Nearly Hemispheric Coverage
		Antenna Orientation
	Receiver Processes
		Channels
		Tracking Loops
		Pseudoranging
		Carrier-Phase Measurement
		Carrier Tracking Loop
		Doppler Shift
	Typical GPS Doppler Shift
		Continuously Integrated Doppler
		Integer Ambiguity
		Signal Squaring
	The Microprocessor
	The Control and Display Unit (CDU)
	The Storage
	The Power
		Battery Power
		Receivers
		Local and Network Accuracy
		Mapping Receivers
		Surveying Receivers
	Exercises
	Answers and Explanations
Chapter 5: Coordinates
	A Few Pertinent Ideas about Geodesy for GNSS
		Plane Surveying
		Development of State Plane Coordinate Systems
		GNSS Surveyors and Geodesy
	Some Geodetic Coordinate Systems
		Three-Dimensional Cartesian Coordinates
		Polar Motion
		Latitude and Longitude
	Elements of a Geodetic Datum
		The Deflection of the Vertical
	Geocentric, Geodetic, and Astronomic Latitude
		Datums and Reference Frames
		Development of the Ellipsoidal Model
	Biaxial Ellipsoidal Model of the Earth
		The Role of an Ellipsoid in a Datum
	Regional Ellipsoids
		Measurement Technology and Datum Selection
	Position Derived from GNSS
		The Development of a Geocentric Model
	The Geoid
		An Equipotential Surface
		Geoidal Undulation
	The Modern Geocentric Datum
		World Geodetic System 1984
	North American Datum 1983
		NAD27
		The Development of the North American Datum 1983
		High Accuracy Reference Networks
		Continuously Operating Reference Stations
		A Step Forward
		The International Terrestrial Reference Frame
		Frame Reference Epoch
		World Geodetic System (WGS84)
		ITRF, WGS84, and NAD83
		The North American Terrestrial Reference Frame 2022 (NATRF2022)
	State Plane Coordinate Systems
	Distortion
		Decreasing Distortion
	Secant and Cylindrical Projections
	State Plane Coordinate System Map Projections
	SPCS27 to SPCS83
	State Plane Coordinates Scale and Distance
		Geodetic Lengths to Grid Lengths
	Universal Transverse Mercator Coordinates
	Universal Transverse Mercator Zones of the World
	Heights
		Ellipsoidal Heights
		Orthometric Heights
			Spirit Leveling
	Evolution of a Vertical Datum
		Sea Level
			A Different Approach
			The Zero Point
	The Geoid
		Geoid Models
		North American-Pacific Geopotential Datum of 2022
	Exercises
	Answers and Explanations
Chapter 6: Static GNSS Surveying
	A Few Words about Accuracy
		Standards of Accuracy
		New Design Criteria
		The Lay of the Land
	National Geodetic Survey (NGS) Control
		NGS Control Data Sheets
		Coordinates
		The Station Mark
		Significance of the Information
	Control from Continuously Operating Networks
		NGS Continuously Operating Reference Stations
		NGS CORS Reference Points
		International CORS
	Static Survey Project Design
		Horizontal Control
		Station Location
		Vertical Control
		Plotting Project Points
		Evaluating Access
		Planning Offsets
		Planning Azimuth Marks
		Obtaining Permissions
	Some GNSS Survey Design Facts
		Position Dilution of Precision
		Polar Plot
		An Example
		Choosing the Window
		Naming the Variables
		Receivers
	Drawing the Baselines
		Horizontal Control
		Julian Day in Naming Sessions
		Independent Lines
		Redundancy
		Forming Loops
		Finding the Number of Sessions
		Ties to the Vertical Control
	Static GNSS Control Observations
		Equipment
			Conventional Equipment
			Safety Equipment
			Communications
			GNSS Equipment
			Auxiliary Equipment
			Information
	Station Data Sheet
		Station Name
		Photographs
		To-Reach Descriptions
		Flagging and Describing the Monument
	Visibility Diagrams
		Working around Obstructions
		Approximate Station Coordinates
		Multipath
		Point Offsets
	Monumentation
	Logistics
		Scheduling
	Observation
		Setup
		Height of Instrument
		Observation Logs
		Weather
	Daily Progress Evaluation
	Exercises
	Answers and Explanations
Chapter 7: Real-Time GNSS Surveying
	Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) and Differential GNSS
	The General Idea
	Radial GNSS
		The Correction Signal
		DGNSS
	Local and Wide Area DGPS
	Wide Area Augmentation System
	GIS Application
	Real-Time Kinematic
	Wireless Link
	The Vertical Component in RTK
	Some Practical RTK Suggestions
	Real-Time Network Services
	Real-Time GPS Techniques
		Dynamic Lines
		Planning
	A Few RTK Procedures
	Site Calibration
	Precise Point Positioning
		PPP Disadvantage
	Exercises
	Answers and Explanations
Chapter 8: GPS Modernization and Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
	GPS Modernization
	Satellite Blocks
	Block I, Block II/IIA, Block IIR, and Block III Satellites
	Block I
	Block II
	Block IIA
	Block IIR
	Block IIR-M
	Block IIF
	Block III
	Power Spectral Density Diagrams
		dBW/Hz
		L1 Legacy Signals
	New Signals
	The M-Code
	L2C
	L5
	Practical Advantages
	L1C Another Civil Signal
	The New Navigation Messages
	GPS Evolution
	Global Navigation Satellite System
	GLONASS
		Satellites
		Signals and Services
			Code Division Multiple Access
			Frequency Division Multiple Access
		Control Segment
		Time Management
	Galileo
		Satellites
		Signals and Services
		Control Segment
		Time Management
	BeiDou
		BDS-1
		BDS-2
		BDS-2 Signals and Services
		BDS-3
		BDS-3 Signals and Services
		BeiDou Message Services
		BeiDou Augmentation Services
		BeiDou’s Control/Ground Segment
		BeiDou Time Management
	The Quasi-Zenith Satellite System
		Satellites
		Signals and Services
		Control Segment
		Time Management
		NavIC
		Satellites
		Signals and Services
		Control Segment
		Time Management
	Progress
	Exercises
	Answers and Explanations
Glossary
References
Index