Geotechnical and Exploration Drilling in the Polar Regions

Preface
Contents
Chapter 1: Drilling Targets in the Polar Regions
	1.1 Introduction to the Polar Regions
		1.1.1 Mapping the Earth´s Polar Regions
		1.1.2 Polar Climate
		1.1.3 Polar Regions and Climate Changes
		1.1.4 Territorial Claims in the Arctic and Antarctica
			1.1.4.1 Sovereignty in the Arctic
			1.1.4.2 Territorial Claims in Antarctica
	1.2 Geotechnical Subsurface Investigations in the Polar Regions
	1.3 Mineral Resources in the Polar Regions
		1.3.1 World Resources: Depletion of Existing and Exploration for New Sources
		1.3.2 Mineral Resources in the Arctic
			1.3.2.1 Alaska
			1.3.2.2 Canadian Arctic
			1.3.2.3 Greenland
			1.3.2.4 Russian Arctic
			1.3.2.5 Northern Scandinavia, Svalbard, and Finland
		1.3.3 Mineral Resources in Antarctica
	1.4 Water and Geothermal Resources in the Polar Regions
		1.4.1 Antarctic and Greenland Ice Sheets as Freshwater Sources
		1.4.2 Water-Well Supply in the Polar Regions
		1.4.3 Geothermal Resources in the Arctic and Antarctica
			1.4.3.1 Alaska
			1.4.3.2 Greenland
			1.4.3.3 Iceland
			1.4.3.4 Russian Arctic
			1.4.3.5 Antarctica
	1.5 Borehole Disposal in the Polar Regions
		1.5.1 Radioactive Wastes Borehole Disposal
		1.5.2 Sub-Permafrost Carbon Dioxide Storage
	1.6 Scientific Drilling Targets in the Polar Regions
		1.6.1 Permafrost Temperature Monitoring
		1.6.2 Microbiological Studies in Permafrost
		1.6.3 Sedimentology of the Arctic and Southern Oceans
		1.6.4 Studies of Glacial and Subglacial Geology
		1.6.5 Polar Regions as Space Analogs of Extraterrestrial Investigations
	References
Chapter 2: Drilling Challenges and Drilling Methods in the Polar Regions
	2.1 Drilling Operation Logistics in the Polar Regions
		2.1.1 All-Weather and Winter Roads
		2.1.2 Railroads
		2.1.3 Air Transport
		2.1.4 River and Sea Transport
		2.1.5 Transport in Antarctica
	2.2 Low-Temperature Challenges in Drilling Operations
		2.2.1 Behavior of Construction Steels at Low Operating Temperatures
		2.2.2 Behavior of Hydraulic Systems at Low Operating Temperatures
	2.3 Permafrost Related Challenges in Drilling
		2.3.1 Permafrost: Types, Distribution, and Thickness
			2.3.1.1 Permafrost Types
			2.3.1.2 Permafrost Distribution
			2.3.1.3 Permafrost Formations
			2.3.1.4 Thickness of Permafrost
			2.3.1.5 Prediction of Permafrost Thickness
		2.3.2 Challenges Associated with Permafrost Thawing Around the Borehole
		2.3.3 Casing Challenges
		2.3.4 Gas Blowouts from Permafrost
	2.4 Sea Ice Challenges in Offshore Drilling
	2.5 Environmental and Social Impacts from Arctic and Antarctic Exploration
		2.5.1 Environmental Impact from Drilling Operations
		2.5.2 Potential Impacts on the Indigenous People in the Arctic Region
		2.5.3 Environmental Regulations and Protected Areas in Arctic
		2.5.4 Environmental Protection of Antarctic Area
	2.6 Drilling Methods and Drilling Program Planning
		2.6.1 Classification of Drilling Methods
		2.6.2 Planning of the Drilling Program
	References
Chapter 3: Non-Coring Physical Methods of Drilling in Frozen Soils
	3.1 Water-Jet Drilling
		3.1.1 Water-Jetting Cutting and Erosion of Frozen Soils
		3.1.2 Low-Pressure Water-Jet Drilling
			3.1.2.1 Miles Method of Frozen Gold Placers Thawing
			3.1.2.2 Water-Jet Drilling for Temperature Monitoring and Logging
			3.1.2.3 Water-Supply Well Drilling
			3.1.2.4 Rescue Drill
		3.1.3 High-Pressure Water-Jet Drilling
	3.2 Steam-Jet Drilling
		3.2.1 Steam Points for Frozen Gold-Placer Thawing
		3.2.2 Steam Needles for Drilling Blast Holes
		3.2.3 Steam Drills for Piles Installation
			3.2.3.1 Steam Needles
			3.2.3.2 Steam Vibratory Pilot-Drill
	3.3 Flame-Jet Drilling
	References
Chapter 4: Non-Rotational Drilling and Sampling in Frozen Soils
	4.1 Penetrative and Dynamic Behavior of Frozen Soils
		4.1.1 Strength
		4.1.2 Compressibility
		4.1.3 Impact Resistance
	4.2 Direct-Push Drilling
		4.2.1 Driving
		4.2.2 Drive Sampling
		4.2.3 Penetrative Testing of Active Layer Thickness
		4.2.4 Cone Penetration Testing
	4.3 Percussion and Vibratory Drilling in Frozen Soils
		4.3.1 Cable-Tool Drilling
		4.3.2 Vibratory Drilling
		4.3.3 Hammer Drilling
	References
Chapter 5: Principles of Rotary Drilling in Frozen Soils
	5.1 General Considerations of Rotary Drilling in Frozen Soils
	5.2 Cutting Mechanics and Drill Bits for Drilling in Frozen Soils
		5.2.1 Basic Principles of Cutting in Frozen Soils
		5.2.2 General Design of Drill Bits
		5.2.3 Force of Cutting and Power Requirements
	5.3 Casing Design and Borehole Plugging
		5.3.1 Special Features of Casing Design in Frozen Soils
			5.3.1.1 Passive Methods of Borehole Protection
			5.3.1.2 Active Methods of Borehole Protection
		5.3.2 Casing Cementing
		5.3.3 Casing-While-Drilling and Duplex Drilling
		5.3.4 Dry Borehole Plugging
	References
Chapter 6: Auger and Rotary Dry Drilling in Frozen Soils
	6.1 Types of Augers
	6.2 Auger Design Considerations
	6.3 Solid-Stem Continuous-Flight Augers and Bits
	6.4 Auger Core Drilling
	6.5 Helical Foundations and Ground Anchors
		6.5.1 Screw Piles
		6.5.2 Helical Piers
		6.5.3 Ground Anchors
	6.6 Rotary Dry-Core Drilling
	References
Chapter 7: Rotary Drilling with Fluid Circulation in Frozen Soils
	7.1 Temperature Behavior of Borehole
		7.1.1 Temperature Distribution of Circulating Drilling Fluid in Borehole
		7.1.2 Permafrost Thawing Around Borehole
		7.1.3 Preventive Actions of Permafrost Thawing and Drilling-Fluid Coolers
	7.2 Nonfreezing Drilling Fluids
		7.2.1 Classification and Requirements to Drilling Fluids
		7.2.2 Nondispersed Water-Based Drilling Fluids
			7.2.2.1 Brines
			7.2.2.2 Polymer Drilling Fluids
		7.2.3 Dispersed Water-Based Drilling Fluids
			7.2.3.1 Clay Drilling Muds
			7.2.3.2 Emulsions
			7.2.3.3 Microsphere-Based Drilling Fluids
		7.2.4 Ice-Erosion Capacity of Drilling Fluids
	7.3 Rotary-Percussion Fluid-Circulation Drilling
		7.3.1 Hydraulic Hammer Core Drilling
		7.3.2 Water-Powered, Down-the-Hole Hammer Drilling
		7.3.3 Sonic Drilling
	References
Chapter 8: Air and Foam Drilling in Frozen Soils
	8.1 Temperature Distribution of Compressed Air in Borehole
	8.2 Cooling and Dehumidification of Compressed Air
		8.2.1 Normalization of Compressed Air Properties
		8.2.2 Natural Heat Exchangers
		8.2.3 Thermodynamic Coolers
		8.2.4 Refrigerators and Combined Cooling Systems
		8.2.5 Dehumidification of Compressed Air
	8.3 Air Core Drilling Practices
		8.3.1 Equipment Arrangement
		8.3.2 Drill Bits
		8.3.3 Drilling Parameters
	8.4 Rotary-Percussion Air Drilling
		8.4.1 Top Hammer Drilling
		8.4.2 Down-the-Hole Air-Driven Hammer Drilling
			8.4.2.1 Concepts of DTH Hammer Drilling
			8.4.2.2 DTH Hammer Core Drilling
			8.4.2.3 Reverse-Circulation Air-Driven Hammer Drilling
	8.5 Foam Drilling
	8.6 Selected Field Experience of Drilling Frozen Soils and Rocks with Chilled Air and Foam
		8.6.1 Drilling with Chilled Air
			8.6.1.1 Russian Arctic
			8.6.1.2 Alaska
			8.6.1.3 Svalbard
			8.6.1.4 Antarctica
		8.6.2 Drilling in Rock Glaciers
		8.6.3 Trials with Foam Drilling
	References
Chapter 9: Rigs and Drills for Geotechnical and Exploration Rotary Drilling in the Polar Regions
	9.1 Classification of Geotechnical and Exploration Rotary Drilling Rigs
	9.2 Portable Drills
		9.2.1 Man-Portable Dry Core Drills
			9.2.1.1 Hand-Driven Coring Tubes
			9.2.1.2 Power-Driven Coring Tubes
				Drills with Electric Drive
				Drills with Gasoline Drive
			9.2.1.3 Petrol Breakers
		9.2.2 Non-coring Earth Augers
		9.2.3 Auger Core Drills
		9.2.4 Man-Portable Core Drills with Fluid-Air Circulation
		9.2.5 Portable and Heliportable Drilling Rigs
			9.2.5.1 Purpose-Built Portable Drilling Rigs
			9.2.5.2 Commercial Portable Drilling Rigs
			9.2.5.3 Heliportable Drilling Rigs
	9.3 Movable and Mobile Drilling Rigs
		9.3.1 Purpose-Built Mobile Drilling Rigs
		9.3.2 Commercial Movable and Mobile Drilling Rigs
		9.3.3 Large Mobile Drilling Rigs for Pile Installation
	References
Chapter 10: Special Drilling Methods in the Polar Regions
	10.1 Water-Well Drilling
		10.1.1 Types of Groundwater Occurrences
		10.1.2 Drilling Methods and Water-Well Design
	10.2 Ground-Source Heat Pumps Installation
	10.3 Drilling in Frozen Gold Placers
		10.3.1 Exploration Drilling
			10.3.1.1 Cable-Tool Drilling
			10.3.1.2 Air Roller-Bit Drilling
			10.3.1.3 RC Drilling
			10.3.1.4 Large-Diameter Drilling
		10.3.2 Drilling for Thawing
	10.4 Microbiological Drilling and Sampling
	10.5 Drilling for Gas Hydrates
		10.5.1 Gas-Hydrates Distribution and Offshore Core Sampling
		10.5.2 Mallik Site, Mackenzie River Delta
			10.5.2.1 Mallik 2L-38 Gas Hydrate Research Well
			10.5.2.2 Mallik 3L-38, 4L-38 and 5L-38 Gas- Hydrate Research Wells
		10.5.3 Hot Ice Well, North Slope of Alaska
		10.5.4 Mount Elbert Site, North Slope of Alaska
		10.5.5 Muri Coalfield Site, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau
	10.6 Subglacial Geological Sampling and Drilling
		10.6.1 Direct-Push Penetrating
			10.6.1.1 Penetrative Samplers
			10.6.1.2 Penetrometers
			10.6.1.3 Ploughmeters, Dragometers, and Drag Spools
		10.6.2 Conventional Rotary Drilling
		10.6.3 Electromechanical Cable-Suspended Drilling
	10.7 Deep Geological Drilling
	References
Chapter 11: Geological and Scientific Offshore Drilling and Core Sampling in Ice-Covered Waters
	11.1 Operations from Drilling Vessels
		11.1.1 Drilling from Non-Ice Class Vessels
		11.1.2 Drilling from Ice-Class Vessels
			11.1.2.1 Classification of Vessels for Operations in Ice
			11.1.2.2 RV Drillship Bavenit
			11.1.2.3 RV Aranda and Expedition in the Eastern Weddell Sea, Southern Ocean
			11.1.2.4 Icebreaker Vidar Viking and the Arctic Coring Expedition
			11.1.2.5 RV/IB Nathaniel B. Palmer and SHALDRIL
			11.1.2.6 Dedicated Icebreaker Drillships
		11.1.3 Drilling from Ice-Bound Barges
	11.2 Drilling from Sea Ice and Ice Shelves
	11.3 Remotely Controlled Robotic Seabed-Drilling Rigs
		11.3.1 GBU-2-4000L and Arktika-2012 Expedition
		11.3.2 MeBo70 and Expedition PS104
	11.4 Underwater Core Sampling
		11.4.1 Sediment Core Sampling in Arctic and Southern Oceans
			11.4.1.1 Gravity Corers
			11.4.1.2 Piston Corers
			11.4.1.3 Hydraulically Damped Corers
			11.4.1.4 Vibratory Corers
			11.4.1.5 Percussion Corers
		11.4.2 Core Sampling of Antarctic Subglacial Sediments
	References
Concluding Remarks
	References