Geopedology: An Integration of Geomorphology and Pedology for Soil and Landscape Studies

In Memoriam
Foreword
	Bringing Geopedology to a New Generation
	References
Contents
Part I: Foundations of Geopedology
	Chapter 1: Introduction
		References
	Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework
		References
	Chapter 3: Relationships Between Geomorphology and Pedology: Brief Review
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Definitions and Approaches
			3.2.1 Academic Stream
			3.2.2 Applied Stream
		3.3 Nature of the Relationships and Fields of Convergence
			3.3.1 Evolution of the Relationships
			3.3.2 Mutual Contributions
			3.3.3 Trend Towards Greater Integration
		3.4 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 4: The Geopedologic Approach
		4.1 Introduction: Definition, Origin, Development
		4.2 Conceptual Relationships
			4.2.1 Common Forming Factors
			4.2.2 The Geopedologic Landscape
				4.2.2.1 Flat Areas
				4.2.2.2 Sloping Areas
		4.3 Methodological Relationships
			4.3.1 Geopedologic Integration: A Structural Model
			4.3.2 Geopedologic Integration: Soil Geography, Genesis, and Stratigraphy
				4.3.2.1 Soil Geography
				4.3.2.2 Soil Genesis and Stratigraphy
			4.3.3 Geopedologic Integration: A Test of Numerical Validation
				4.3.3.1 Materials and Method
				4.3.3.2 Results
				4.3.3.3 Conclusion
		4.4 Operational Relationships
			4.4.1 Introduction
			4.4.2 The Structure of the Soil Survey
			4.4.3 The Functioning of the Soil Survey
			4.4.4 The Contribution of Geomorphology to Soil Survey
		4.5 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 5: The Pedologic Landscape: Organization of the Soil Material
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Nano-level
			5.2.1 Chemical Reactions
			5.2.2 Mechanical Reactions
				5.2.2.1 Types of Packing
				5.2.2.2 Types of Fabric
			5.2.3 Physico-Chemical Reactions
			5.2.4 Relationship with Geopedology
		5.3 Micro-level
			5.3.1 The Micromorphologic Components
				5.3.1.1 Skeleton Grains
				5.3.1.2 Plasma
				5.3.1.3 Pores
				5.3.1.4 Pedologic Features
			5.3.2 Relationship with Geopedology
		5.4 Meso-level
			5.4.1 Horizon Definition and Designation
				5.4.1.1 Primary Divisions: The Master Horizons
				5.4.1.2 Secondary Divisions: Specific Genetic Features
				5.4.1.3 Tertiary Divisions
			5.4.2 Relationship with Geopedology
		5.5 Macro-level
			5.5.1 Definition
			5.5.2 Related Concepts
			5.5.3 Relationship with Geopedology
		5.6 Mega-level
			5.6.1 Definition
			5.6.2 Relationship with Geopedology
		5.7 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 6: The Geomorphic Landscape: Criteria for Classifying Geoforms
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Examples of Geomorphic Classification
			6.2.1 Classification by Order of Magnitude
			6.2.2 Genetic and Genetic-Chorologic Classifications
			6.2.3 Morphometric Classification
			6.2.4 Ethnogeomorphic Classification
		6.3 Bases for a Taxonomic Classification System of the Geoforms
			6.3.1 Premises and Basic Statements
			6.3.2 Prior Information Sources
			6.3.3 Searching for Structure: An Inductive Example
		6.4 Structure and Elements for Building a Taxonomic System of the Geoforms
			6.4.1 Structure
			6.4.2 Elements
				6.4.2.1 Category
				6.4.2.2 Class
				6.4.2.3 Taxon
				6.4.2.4 Attribute
		6.5 Levels of Perception: Exploring the Structure of a Geomorphic Space
		6.6 Structure of a Taxonomic System of the Geoforms
		6.7 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 7: The Geomorphic Landscape: Classification of Geoforms
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 The Taxonomy: Categories and Main Classes of Geotaxa
			7.2.1 Geostructure
			7.2.2 Morphogenic Environment
			7.2.3 Geomorphic Landscape
				7.2.3.1 Definition
				7.2.3.2 Taxa
			7.2.4 Relief/Molding
				7.2.4.1 Definition
				7.2.4.2 Taxa
			7.2.5 Lithology/Facies
				7.2.5.1 Definition
				7.2.5.2 Taxa
			7.2.6 Terrain Form/Landform
				7.2.6.1 Definition
				7.2.6.2 Taxa
		7.3 Classification of the Geoforms at the Lower Levels
			7.3.1 Introduction
			7.3.2 Geoforms Mainly Controlled by the Geologic Structure
				7.3.2.1 Structural Geoforms Proper
				7.3.2.2 Volcanic Geoforms
				7.3.2.3 Karstic Geoforms
			7.3.3 Geoforms Mainly Controlled by the Morphogenic Agents
				7.3.3.1 Nival, Glacial, and Periglacial Geoforms
				7.3.3.2 Eolian Geoforms
				7.3.3.3 Alluvial and Colluvial Geoforms
				7.3.3.4 Lacustrine Geoforms
				7.3.3.5 Gravity and Mass Movement Geoforms
				7.3.3.6 Coastal Geoforms
			7.3.4 Banal Hillside Geoforms
				7.3.4.1 Main Characteristics
				7.3.4.2 Classes of Banal Hillside Geoforms
		7.4 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 8: The Geomorphic Landscape: The Attributes of Geoforms
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Morphographic Attributes: The Geometry of Geoforms
			8.2.1 Topography
			8.2.2 Planimetry
				8.2.2.1 Configuration of the Geoforms
				8.2.2.2 Contour Design of the Geoforms
				8.2.2.3 Drainage Pattern
				8.2.2.4 Neighboring Units and Surrounding Conditions
			8.2.3 Morphography and Landscape Ecology
		8.3 Morphometric Attributes: The Dimension of Geoforms
			8.3.1 Relative Elevation (Relief Amplitude, Internal Relief)
			8.3.2 Drainage Density
			8.3.3 Relief Slope
			8.3.4 Terrain and Soil Surface Features
			8.3.5 Contribution of Digital Morphometry
		8.4 Morphogenic Attributes: The Dynamics of Geoforms
			8.4.1 Particle Size Distribution
				8.4.1.1 Relevance
				8.4.1.2 The Information
				8.4.1.3 Examples of Inference and Interpretation
			8.4.2 Structure
				8.4.2.1 Geogenic Structure
				8.4.2.2 Pedogenic Structure
			8.4.3 Consistence
			8.4.4 Mineralogy
			8.4.5 Morphoscopy
		8.5 Morphochronologic Attributes: The History of Geoforms
			8.5.1 Reference Scheme for the Geochronology of the Quaternary
			8.5.2 Dating Techniques
			8.5.3 Relative Geochronology: The Contribution of Pedostratigraphy
				8.5.3.1 Definition
				8.5.3.2 Indicators
				8.5.3.3 Combining Indicators
		8.6 Relative Importance of the Geomorphic Attributes
			8.6.1 Attribute Classes
				8.6.1.1 Differentiating Attributes
				8.6.1.2 Accessory Attributes
				8.6.1.3 Accidental Attributes
			8.6.2 Attribute Weight
				8.6.2.1 Morphographic Attributes
				8.6.2.2 Morphometric Attributes
				8.6.2.3 Morphogenic Attributes
				8.6.2.4 Morphochronologic Attributes
			8.6.3 Attribute Hierarchization
				8.6.3.1 Upper Levels
				8.6.3.2 Lower Levels
		8.7 General Conclusion on Geopsedology
		References
Part II: Approaches to Soil-Landscape Pattern Analysis
	Chapter 9: Knowledge Is Power: Where Digital Soil Mapping Needs Geopedology
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Example 1: Exhumed Paleosols
		9.3 Example 2: Depositional Low-Relief Environments
		9.4 Example 3: Inverted Landscapes
		9.5 Example 4: Young Post-Glacial Landscapes
		9.6 Discussion
			9.6.1 What Could Be the Contribution of the Geopedologic Approach to DSM?
		9.7 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 10: Geodiversity and Geopedology in a Logarithmic Universe
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 The Concept of Diversity
		10.3 Biodiversity, Pedodiversity, Landform Diversity, and Lithological Diversity Patterns
		10.4 Geopedologic and Bioclimatic Approaches
		10.5 Geographical Analysis, Taxonomies, Maps and Soil Surveys: Fractal Structures
			10.5.1 Paretian Thinking in a Logarithmic World
			10.5.2 Paretian Thinking, Natural Resources Inventories, and Mapping
			10.5.3 Human Cognition, Logarithmic Thinking and Miller’s Law
		10.6 Pedodiversity, Geodiversity and the Preservation of Geoforms as Part of Natural Heritage
		10.7 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 11: Algorithms for Quantitative Pedology
		11.1 Introduction
			11.1.1 Example Data: Clarksville Soil Series (Fig. 11.1)
		11.2 Representing Collections of Soil Profiles in R
			11.2.1 Subsetting
			11.2.2 Data Quality and Repairs
		11.3 Soil Morphology
			11.3.1 Soil Color
				11.3.1.1 Color Conversion
				11.3.1.2 Color Contrast
			11.3.2 Soil Profile Sketches
			11.3.3 Functional Horizon Aggregation
			11.3.4 Change of Depth Support
		11.4 Numerical Classification of Soils
		11.5 Water Balance
		11.6 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 12: Interaction of Geological and Pedological Processes in the Genesis of Soils with Gypsum, Northern Patagonia, Argentina
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Distribution of Gypsum Soils and Its Relationship with the Calcium Sulfate Source
			12.2.1 Gypsum Soils of Geological Origin
			12.2.2 Gypsum Soils of Pedogenic Origin
		12.3 Processes Affecting the Soil. Soil Uses
		12.4 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 13: Use of Soil Maps to Interpret Soil-Landform Assemblages and Soil-Landscape Evolution
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Methodological Approach
		13.3 Example 1: A Detailed Surficial Geology Map of Iowa, USA
		13.4 Example 2: The Loess-Covered Landscapes of Western Wisconsin, USA
		13.5 Example 3: The Recently Deglaciated Landscape of Northeastern Lower Michigan, USA
		13.6 Example 4: An Enigmatic Soil Parent Material on the Outwash Plains of Southwestern Michigan, USA
		13.7 Example 5: A Watershed with a Complex Geology in the Western Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg
		13.8 Example 6: Improving the Precision of Delineations for Large Extent Maps in the Glaciated Central Lowlands, USA
		13.9 Summary and Conclusions
		References
Part III: Methods and Techniques Applied to Pattern Recognition and Mapping
	Chapter 14: Digital Soil Texture Maps of Argentina and Their Relationship to Soil-Forming Factors and Processes
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Materials and Methods
			14.2.1 Study Area
			14.2.2 Soil Profile Data
			14.2.3 Environmental Covariates
			14.2.4 Processing
			14.2.5 Modelling and Accuracy Assessment
			14.2.6 Generation of Textural Class Maps
		14.3 Results and Discussion
			14.3.1 Predicted Maps and Accuracy Assessment
			14.3.2 Maps of Textural Classes
		14.4 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 15: Synergistic Use of Radar and Optical Image Data for Improved Land Use and Land Cover Assessment: A Case Study in the North of Entre Rios Province (Argentina)
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Materials and Methods
			15.2.1 Subset Selection
			15.2.2 Land Use and Land Cover Classes
			15.2.3 Synthetic Aperture Radar Data
			15.2.4 Optical Data
			15.2.5 Methodology
				15.2.5.1 SAR Data Processing
				15.2.5.2 Statistical Analysis
				15.2.5.3 Change Detection: Log-Ratio Scaling
				15.2.5.4 Radar Vegetation Index
				15.2.5.5 S2 Derived Indices
				15.2.5.6 Radar and Optical Integration
				15.2.5.7 Feature Extraction and Classification
		15.3 Results and Discussion
			15.3.1 Backscattering Behavior
			15.3.2 SAR Log-Ratio Operator
			15.3.3 Radar Vegetation Index
			15.3.4 Soil and Vegetation Radiometric Indices
			15.3.5 Integration of S1 and S2 Bands
		15.4 Concluding Remark
		References
	Chapter 16: Landslide Susceptibility Mapping Using Supervised Learning Methods – Case Study: Southwestern Colombia
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Materials and Method
			16.2.1 Study Area
			16.2.2 Data Collection
			16.2.3 Method
		16.3 Results and Discussion
			16.3.1 SRTM DEM Accuracy Assessment
			16.3.2 Landslide Inventory
			16.3.3 Landslide Conditioning Factors
			16.3.4 LR Model for Landslide Probability Occurrence
				16.3.4.1 Training Model
				16.3.4.2 Performance of the LR Model
			16.3.5 Landslide Susceptibility Zoning Based on RF Analysis
				16.3.5.1 Training Model
				16.3.5.2 Mean Decrease Accuracy (MDA)
				16.3.5.3 Accuracy of the Landslide Classification by the RF Method
		16.4 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 17: Polygenic Vertisols and “Hidden” Vertisols of the Paraná River Basin, Argentina
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Polygenic Vertisols of the Mesopotamian Pampa
			17.2.1 Setting the Subject
			17.2.2 The Study Cases
				17.2.2.1 The Soils and Their Environment
				17.2.2.2 Clay Mineralogy
				17.2.2.3 Mineralogy of the Sand and Silt Fractions
				17.2.2.4 Micromorphology
				17.2.2.5 Discussion and Conclusions
		17.3 “Hidden” Vertisols of the Undulating Pampa
			17.3.1 Setting the Subject
			17.3.2 The Study Cases
				17.3.2.1 Morphology of a Soil Profile in the INTA Fields
				17.3.2.2 Chemical and Physical Parameters
				17.3.2.3 Magnetic Susceptibility
				17.3.2.4 Clay Mineralogy
				17.3.2.5 Application of the Pedogenetic Model to the Classification and Mapping of Vertic Argiudolls
				17.3.2.6 Discussion and Conclusions
		17.4 General Conclusions and Prospect
		References
	Chapter 18: Mapping Gilgai Micro-relief and Its Impact on Dryland Agricultural Landscapes Using Time Series of NDVI Derived from Sentinel-2 Imagery
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Materials and Methods
			18.2.1 Study Area. The COALA Project
			18.2.2 Sentinel 2 Images and Its Processing Chain
			18.2.3 Methodology for Mapping Management Zones Map, MZM, in Australian Paddocks on the Study Area
			18.2.4 Gilgai Soil Structure
		18.3 Results
			18.3.1 Management Zones Map
				18.3.1.1 How MZM Picks Up the Crop Growth Through Sentinel2 Time Series
			18.3.2 Detection of Granular Structure in Paddocks by Using RGB from Sentinel2
			18.3.3 Detection of Granular Structure by Using Other Imagery: Landsat, Google Earth
		18.4 Discussion and Conclusions
		References
Part IV: Applications in Land Degradation and Geohazard Studies
	Chapter 19: Gully Erosion Analysis. Why Geopedology Matters?
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 Research on Gully Erosion: Detection, Monitoring, and Modeling
			19.2.1 Gully Erosion Processes and Modeling
			19.2.2 Remote Sensing, GIS and Gully Mapping
		19.3 Using Geopedology in Gully Erosion Research
			19.3.1 Why Is It Important?
			19.3.2 Why Geopedology Matters?
		19.4 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 20: Soil Erosion Assessment and Mitigation Scenarios Based on Geopedology in Northwestern Patagonia, Argentina
		20.1 Introduction
		20.2 Materials and Method
			20.2.1 Study Area
			20.2.2 Survey Approach
			20.2.3 Soil Erosion Mapping
		20.3 Results and Discussion
			20.3.1 Soil Types
			20.3.2 Current Erosion and Active Processes
			20.3.3 Soil Erosion Hazard
			20.3.4 Soil Erosion Hazard with a Simulated Silvopastoral System
		20.4 Final Considerations
		References
	Chapter 21: Adequacy of Soil Information Resulting from Geopedology-Based Predictive Soil Mapping for Assessing Land Degradation: Case Studies in Thailand and Iran
		21.1 Introduction
		21.2 Materials and Methods
		21.3 Soilscape Mapping for Assessing Soil Erosion in Thailand
			21.3.1 Study Area
			21.3.2 Soil Studies
			21.3.3 Results
		21.4 Soilscape Mapping for Flood Hazard Assessment in Central Thailand
			21.4.1 Study Area
			21.4.2 Soil Studies in Sample Areas and Transects
			21.4.3 Results
		21.5 Soilscape Mapping for Soil Salinity Trend Assessment
			21.5.1 Salinity Hazard Assessment in North-Eastern Thailand
				21.5.1.1 Soil Sampling and Data Analysis
				21.5.1.2 Results
			21.5.2 Soil Salinity Risk Assessment in Iran
				21.5.2.1 Study Area
				21.5.2.2 Soilscape and Hydropedology
				21.5.2.3 Results
		21.6 Discussion
		21.7 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 22: Exploring the Contribution of Geopedology to the Implementation of National Frameworks for Land Degradation Neutrality
		22.1 Land Degradation Neutrality and Geopedology: Foundations
		22.2 Entry Points of Geopedology in Planning for LDN
		22.3 Worked Example Using the Cochabamba Valleys (Bolivia)
		22.4 Final Remarks
		References
Part V: Applications in Land Use Planning and Policy
	Chapter 23: Geo-Pedological Approach for Land Use Planning-Case Studies from India
		23.1 Introduction
		23.2 Materials and Methods
			23.2.1 Details of Study Area
				23.2.1.1 Case Study 1: Meghalaya Plateau
				23.2.1.2 Case Study 2: Yavatmal District, Maharashtra State, India
				23.2.1.3 Case Study 3: Pulivendala
			23.2.2 Geo-Pedological Survey
			23.2.3 Land Evaluation
		23.3 Results and Discussion
			23.3.1 Case Study-1: Meghalaya Plateau
				23.3.1.1 Landforms and Soils
				23.3.1.2 Soil Site Suitability for Potato
			23.3.2 Case Study-2-Yavatmal District
				23.3.2.1 Soil mapping Units in Relation Landforms
				23.3.2.2 Soil Site Suitability Analysis
			23.3.3 Case Study-1: Pulivendula
				23.3.3.1 Landforms and Soils
				23.3.3.2 Soil Site Suitability Analysis
		23.4 Conclusions and Recommendations
		References
	Chapter 24: Geopedologic Information, Foundation for Soil Conservation: Land Evaluation, Land Use Allocation and Associated Conservation Practices
		24.1 Introduction
		24.2 Methodology
		24.3 Study Area Location and Characteristics
		24.4 Study Case 1
		24.5 Study Case 2
		24.6 New Trends in Precision Sustainable Land Management
		24.7 General Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 25: The Relevance of Geopedology for Policy Making and Soil Security
		25.1 Introduction
		25.2 Geopedology and Soil Security
		25.3 Capability
		25.4 Condition
		25.5 Capital
		25.6 Connectivity
		25.7 Codification
		25.8 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 26: Significance of Land Cover Change for Soil Regulating Ecosystem Services Using Maine’s Climate Action Plan as a Case Study
		26.1 Introduction
		26.2 Materials and Methods
			26.2.1 The Ecosystem Services Accounting Framework
		26.3 Results
			26.3.1 Value of SOC by Soil Order and County for Maine
			26.3.2 Value of SIC by Soil Order and County for Maine
			26.3.3 Value of TSC (SOC + SIC) by Soil Order and County for Maine
			26.3.4 Land Use/Land Cover Change by Soil Order in Maine from 2001 to 2016
		26.4 Discussion
			26.4.1 The Role of Pedodiversity (Soil Diversity) in Carbon Regulating ES/ED in Maine
			26.4.2 The Role of Land Cover Change in Soil Carbon Regulating ES/ED in Maine
			26.4.3 The Role of Land Cover and Pedodiversity (Soil Diversity) Concepts in Sustainable Management of Soil C Regulating ES/ED
			26.4.4 Significance of Results for Maine’s Climate Action Plan
		26.5 Summary and Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 27: Upscaling the Integrated Terroir Zoning Through Digital Soil Mapping Disaggregation: A Case Study in the Designation of Origin Campo de Borja
		27.1 Introduction
		27.2 Material and Methods
			27.2.1 Study Area Characterisation
			27.2.2 Data Sources
				27.2.2.1 Original Soil Zoning: A Conventional Soil Map with Phases
				27.2.2.2 Revised Soil Zoning: A Disaggregated Soil Map
				27.2.2.3 Legacy Soil Observations
				27.2.2.4 Climate Zoning
				27.2.2.5 Landscape Zoning
				27.2.2.6 Vineyard Register and Geographical Information System for Agricultural Plots
				27.2.2.7 Data Management, GIS, and Statistical Software
			27.2.3 Procedure
				27.2.3.1 New Homogeneous Terroir Units
				27.2.3.2 Quality Index
				27.2.3.3 Occupation Index
				27.2.3.4 Clustering: HTU Classes by Index
				27.2.3.5 Modelling: OI vs. QI
		27.3 Results and Discussion
			27.3.1 New HTUs from the Disaggregated Soil Map
			27.3.2 Quality Index
			27.3.3 Occupation Index
		27.4 Conclusions
		References
Part VI: Synthesis
	Chapter 28: Concluding Remarks and Outlook
		28.1 Introduction
		28.2 What We Know and the Challenges Ahead
		28.3 Outlook
		References
Index