Geographical and Fingerprinting Data for Positioning and Navigation Systems: Challenges, Experiences and Technology Roadmap

Cover
Geographical and
Fingerprinting Data for
Positioning and Navigation
Systems:
Challenges, Experiences, and
Technology Roadmap
Copyright
Dedicatories
Contributors
Preface
Acknowledgments
1.
Challenges of Fingerprinting in Indoor Positioning and Navigation
	Motivation
	Indoor Positioning Systems
		Position, Location, and Navigation
		Classification
		Localization Mechanisms
	Fingerprinting Indoor Positioning Techniques
		Wi-Fi Fingerprinting
		Problems of Wi-Fi Fingerprinting
			Solutions to Radiomap Creation
		Magnetic Field Fingerprint
		Examples of Solutions
			How to Compare Solutions
	Indoor Maps
	Privacy and Security Issues
	Conclusions and Future Challenges of Indoor Positioning
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further Reading
2.
Wi-Fi Tracking Threatens Users' Privacy in Fingerprinting Techniques
	Introduction
	Related Work
	Technical Background
	Potentials and Limitations of Wi-Fi Tracking
	Security Mechanisms Against Wi-Fi Tracking
		Protocol Extensions
		MAC Address Randomization
	Privacy-Preserving Wi-Fi Fingerprinting
		Basic Concept
			Deterministic Approach
			Probabilistic Approach
		Evaluation
			Implementation and Setup
			Deterministic Location Estimation
			Probabilistic Location Estimation
			Considering User Movement
	Conclusion and Future Work
	References
3.
Lessons Learned in Generating Ground Truth for Indoor Positioning
	Introduction
	Lessons Learned at In-Home Scenarios
		Calibration and Experimental Setup
			Smartphone-Based Patient Monitoring
			Smartwatch-Based Patient Monitoring
		Experiences and Lessons Learned
			Smartphone-Based Patient Monitoring
			Smartwatch-Based Patient Monitoring
	Lessons Learned at Very Large Scenarios
		Calibration and Experimental Setup
		Experiences and Lessons Learned
			First Stage
			Second Stage
			Third Stage
			Fourth Stage
			Fifth Stage
			Sixth Stage
	General Experiences
	Acknowledgments
	References
4.
Radio Maps for Fingerprinting in Indoor Positioning
	Introduction
	Radio Maps for Different Radio Technologies
		Deterministic Radio Maps
		Bluetooth Low Energy Radio Maps
		Other Technologies: FM and AM Radio Maps
	Building and Updating Radio Maps
		Build a Radio Map
		Crowdsourcing
		A Crowdsourcing Solution to Build a Radio Map
	Wi-Fi Radio Map Density
		Radio Map Construction Using Interpolation
			Inverse Distance Weighting Interpolation
			Radial Basis Function Interpolation
			Kriging Interpolation
			Other Interpolation Methods
		Radio Map Construction Using Propagation Models
	Radio Maps Filtering
		Radio Map Density and Positioning Performance
		AP Selection
			Offline AP Selection
			Online AP Selection
		Samples Filtering
	Standards
		Fundamental Building Blocks of an Indoor Positioning and Tracking System
		The Need for Standards
		Automatic Discovery Protocols
		Radio Maps: Formats and Protocols
		Floor Maps and Other Space Models
		Remote Positioning Engines
		Standardization Initiatives
	Conclusion
	References
	Further Reading
5.
Crowdsourced Indoor Mapping
	Introduction
	Some Existing Crowdsourced Outdoor Map Systems
		Google Maps
		OpenStreetMap
		MapQuest
		Waze
		Others
		Discussions
	Indoor Map Systems' Research
		Simultaneous Localization and Mapping
		Calibration-Free Indoor Positioning System
			TIX
			SDM
			EZ
			UnLoc
			Walkie-Markie
			CrowdInside
			MapGenie
			Jigsaw
			iMoon
		Discussions
	Research Challenges of Crowdsourced Indoor Floor Plan Construction
		Quality of Crowdsourced Data
		Implications of Internet of Things (IoT) Devices' Equipped Sensors
		Dimension of the Floor Plan Layout
		Type of Architecture
		Privacy and Security
	Conclusion
	References
6.
Radio Fingerprinting-Based Indoor Localization
	Introduction
		Motivation
		Radio Fingerprint Localization Assumptions
	Fingerprinting Challenges
		Fingerprint Point Similarity
		Location and Error Estimation
		Device Heterogeneity
		Obtaining and Updating Radio Maps
	Summary and Conclusions
	References
7.
Offline and Online Strategies for Wi-Fi Fingerprinting Indoor Positioning
	Introduction
	Low-Complexity Strategy for Offline Phase
		RSS Prediction via MWMF Model
		Offline Phase
		Online Phase
		Experimental Setting and Performance Indicators
		Results and Discussions
	Low-Complexity Strategy for Online Phase
		RP Clustering via Affinity Propagation
		Offline Phase
		Online Phase
		Experimental Setting and Performance Indicators
		Results and Discussion
	Conclusion and Future Work
	References
8.
Study and Evaluation of Selected RSSI-Based Positioning Algorithms
	Introduction
	Indoor Radio Propagation
		The Free Space Model
		Indoor Propagation
		The RSSI Measure
	Wi-Fi Positioning by Centroid Methods
		The Centroid Method
		Weighted Centroid Method
	Wi-Fi Fingerprinting
		The Radio Map
		RSSI Vector Similarity Measures
	Fingerprint Calibrated Weighted Centroid
	Validation of the Described Fingerprint and FCWC Schemes
		Validation Data
		Algorithm Implementations
		Results SPCF and FCWC
		Validation Against Competing Algorithms
	Wi-Fi Probability-Based Positioning and BLE
		The Probability Density Function
		A Probability-Based Setup and Algorithm
		Probability-Based Results
		BLE Beacon RSSI Weighted Centroid
	Summary
	References
9.
Mapping Indoor Environments: Challenges Related to the Cartographic Representation and Routes
	Introduction
	Related Work
	Context and Study Area
	Database Construction
		Database Conceptual Model
		Database Implementation
		Cartographic Database Construction
	Indoor Routing
	Development Environment
	Results
		Indoor Cartographic Representation
		Indoor Routes
	Conclusion and Future Developments
	Acknowledgments
	References
10.
OGC IndoorGML: A Standard Approach for Indoor Maps
	Introduction
	Requirements for Indoor Maps
		Complex Structures of Indoor and Connectivity
		Cell-Based Context Awareness
		Integrating Multiple Data Sets
	Basic Concepts of OGC IndoorGML
		Cell Geometry
		Topology Between Cells
		Cell Semantics
		Multilayered Space Model
	Modular Structure of IndoorGML
		IndoorGML Core Module
		IndoorGML Navigation Module
	Implementation Issues
		Cell Determination and Decomposition
		Thick Door Model vs. Thin Door Model
		Path Geometry
		Space Closure
		Hierarchical Structure
		Wall Texture
		Vertical Connection
	Use Cases
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
11.
The EvAAL Evaluation Framework and the IPIN Competitions
	Motivation and Challenges
	Background
		The IPIN Conference
		The EvAAL Indoor Localization Competition
		The Microsoft Indoor Localization Competition
	The EvAAL Framework
	The IPIN Competitions
		Applying the EvAAL Framework to IPIN Competitions
		Discussion on the Error Statistics
	IPIN Competing Systems
		An Overview on the Internals of Real-Time Systems
			Raw-Data Modules
			Fusion Strategies
	Conclusion and Future Directions
	References
12.
IndoorLoc Platform: A Web Tool to Support the Comparison of Indoor Positioning Systems
	Introduction
	Related Work
	Overview of the Platform
		Datasets
		Ranking
		Methods
		Dashboard
		Implementation Details
	Datasets Included in the Platform
		Wi-Fi-Based Datasets
			UJIIndoorLoc
			IPIN2016 Tutorial
			Tampere University
			ALCALA2017 Tutorial
		AmbiLoc Dataset
		magPIE Dataset
	Methods Included in the Platform
		Deterministic-Based Approach
		Probabilistic-Based Approach
	Experiments
	The Platform in Use
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
13.
Challenges and Solutions in Received Signal Strength-Based Seamless Positioning
	Introduction and Definitions
	Overview of Fingerprinting Methods
		Methods With Full Training Databases
		Methods With Reduced Training Databases
			Clustering Methods
			Path-Loss Approaches
			Image-Based Approaches
			Other Approaches
	Challenges and Solutions in Fingerprinting
		Calibration Issues
			The Effect of RSS Offsets
			Possible Calibration Methods
		Database-Size Reduction
			Compression and Clustering
			Access Point Number Reduction
		Measurement Gaps
		Height or Floor Estimation
	Integration of WLAN With Other Signals of Opportunity
		Signals of Opportunity and Their Characteristics
		WLAN and BLE
		WLAN and RFID
	Integration of WLAN With GNSS
		Fusing GNSS Pseudoranges With WLAN Ranges
		Fusing GNSS Pseudoranges With WLAN RSS
			Training Stage
			Estimation Stage
			Performance of Pseudorange and RSS Fusion Filter
	Integration of WLAN With Other Data
		Inertial Data
		Vision Navigation
		Visible Light Positioning
		Magnetic Field Navigation
		Positioning With Sounds or Ultrasonic Waves
		Multimodal Positioning
		Cloud Architectures
	Open Issues and Conclusions
	References
14.
Deployment of a Passive Localization System for Occupancy Services in a Lecture Building
	Introduction
	Overview of the Localization System
		Deployment Cycle
		Training Approach
		Data Representation
	Real Scenario: Occupancy for a Lecture Building
		Overview
		Characterization of the Passive Sensing
		Considerations About Accuracy
		Occupancy Services
	Conclusions
	References
15.
Remote Monitoring for Safety of Workers in Industrial Plants: Learned Lessons Beyond Technical Issues
	Motivation
	Remote Monitoring System for Safety of Workers in Refineries
		The Architecture
			Wearable Devices: The Wristband
			Communication Infrastructure
			Control Center
		Data Anonymity
	Learned Lessons in the Field
		Person Related Issues
		Logistics
	Conclusions
16.
A Review of Indoor Localization Methods Based on Inertial Sensors
	Introduction
	Inertial Sensors and Magnetometers
	Orientation Estimation
		Prediction Stage
		Update Stage
			Absolute Gravity Update
			Differential Gravity Update
			Absolute Magnetic Field Update
			Differential Magnetic Field Update
			Absolute Compass Update
			Zero Angular Rate Update
	Shoe-Mounted Inertial Positioning
	Non-shoe-Mounted Inertial Positioning
		Step Detection on Horizontal Surfaces
		Step Detection on Stairs
		Step Length Estimation
		Vertical Displacement Estimation
	Drift Reduction Methods
		Heuristic Drift Elimination Algorithms
		SLAM-Based Algorithms
		Multi-inertial Sensor Fusion
		Landmark-Based Algorithms
		Height Error Correction
	Conclusions
	References
17.
Fundamentals of Airborne Acoustic Positioning Systems
	Introduction
	Acoustic Wave Propagation in Air
		Absorption
		Propagation Speed
		Impedance
		Outdoor Propagation
	Acoustic Signal Detection and Positioning Observables
	Positioning Strategy
		Spherical Lateration
		Hyperbolic Lateration
	Detection Hindering Phenomena and Compensation Strategies
		Multiple Access Interference
		Strong Multipath Propagation
		Doppler Shift
	Conclusions
	References
18.
Indoor Positioning System Based on PSD Sensor
	Introduction
	Description and Modeling of the Optical Sensor System
		PSD Sensor
		Electrical System Modeling
		Optical System Modeling
	Sensor System Calibration
		Electrical Calibration Process
		Geometric Calibration
	Three-Dimensional Position Determination Using AoA
		Method 1: IPS Located in the Environment and IRED on Board of the Mobile Agent
		Method 2: PSD Sensor on Board of Each Mobile Agent and Emitters in the Environment
	Discussion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	Y
	Z
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