General, organic, & biological chemistry

Cover
Front End paper
Title Page
Copyrigh Page
About the Author
Brief Contents
Contents
Preface
P.A.V.E. the Way to Student Learning
Acknowledgments
List of How To’s
List of Applications
1 Matter and Measurement
	1.1 Chemistry—The Science of Everyday Experience
	1.2 States of Matter
	1.3 Classifi cation of Matter
	1.4 Measurement
		1.4A The Metric System
		1.4B Measuring Length
		1.4C Measuring Mass
		1.4D Measuring Volume
	1.5 Signifi cant Figures
		1.5A Determining the Number of Signifi cant Figures
		1.5B Using Signifi cant Figures in Multiplication and Division
		1.5C Using Signifi cant Figures in Addition and Subtraction
	1.6 Scientifi c Notation
	1.7 Problem Solving Using Conversion Factors
		1.7A Conversion Factors
		1.7B Solving a Problem Using One Conversion Factor
		1.7C Solving a Problem Using Two or More Conversion Factors
	1.8 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Problem Solving Using Clinical Conversion Factors
	1.9 Temperature
	1.10 Density and Specifi c Gravity
		1.10A Density
		1.10B Specifi c Gravity
	Chapter Highlights
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Problems
		Challenge Problems
2 Atoms and the Periodic Table
	2.1 Elements
		2.1A Elements and the Periodic Table
		2.1B FOCUS ON THE HUMAN BODY: The Elements of Life
		2.1C Compounds
	2.2 Structure of the Atom
	2.3 Isotopes
		2.3A Isotopes, Atomic Number, and Mass Number
		2.3B Atomic Weight
		2.3C FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Isotopes in Medicine
	2.4 The Periodic Table
		2.4A Basic Features of the Periodic Table
		2.4B Characteristics of Groups 1A, 2A, 7A, and 8A
		2.4C The Unusual Nature of Carbon
	2.5 Electronic Structure
	2.6 Electronic Confi gurations
		2.6A First-Row Elements (Period 1)
		2.6B Second-Row Elements (Period 2)
		2.6C Electronic Confi gurations of Other Elements Using the
 Periodic Table
	2.7 Valence Electrons
		2.7A Relating Valence Electrons to Group Number
		2.7B Electron-Dot Symbols
	2.8 Periodic Trends
		2.8A Atomic Size
		2.8B Ionization Energy
	Chapter Highlights
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Problems
		Challenge Problems
4 Covalent Compounds
	4.1 Introduction to Covalent Bonding
		4.1A Covalent Bonding and the Periodic Table
		4.1B FOCUS ON THE HUMAN BODY: Covalent Molecules and
 the Cardiovascular System
	4.2 Lewis Structures
		4.2A Drawing Lewis Structures
		4.2B Multiple Bonds
	4.3 Exceptions to the Octet Rule
		4.3A Elements in Group 3A
		4.3B Elements in the Third Row
	4.4 Resonance
		4.4A Drawing Resonance Structures
		4.4B FOCUS ON THE ENVIRONMENT: Ozone
	4.5 Naming Covalent Compounds
	4.6 Molecular Shape
		4.6A Two Groups Around an Atom
		4.6B Three Groups Around an Atom
		4.6C Four Groups Around an Atom
	4.7 Electronegativity and Bond Polarity
	4.8 Polarity of Molecules
	4.9 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Covalent Drugs and Medical Products
	Chapter Highlights
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Problems
		Challenge Problems
5 Chemical Reactions
	5.1 Introduction to Chemical Reactions
		5.1A General Features of Physical and Chemical Changes
		5.1B Writing Chemical Equations
	5.2 Balancing Chemical Equations
	5.3 Types of Reactions
		5.3A Combination and Decomposition Reactions
		5.3B Replacement Reactions
	5.4 Oxidation and Reduction
		5.4A General Features of Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
		5.4B Examples of Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
		5.4C FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Pacemakers
	5.5 The Mole and Avogadro’s Number
	5.6 Mass to Mole Conversions
		5.6A Molar Mass
		5.6B Relating Grams to Moles
		5.6C Relating Grams to Number of Atoms or Molecules
	5.7 Mole Calculations in Chemical Equations
	5.8 Mass Calculations in Chemical Equations
		5.8A Converting Moles of Reactant to Grams of Product
		5.8B Converting Grams of Reactant to Grams of Product
	5.9 Percent Yield
		5.9A Calculating Percent Yield
		5.9B Calculating Percent Yield from Grams of Reactant
		5.9C FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: The Importance of Percent Yield in the Pharmaceutical Industry
	5.10 Limiting Reactants
		5.10A Determining the Limiting Reactant
		5.10B Using the Limiting Reactant to Determine How Much Product Is Formed
		5.10C Determining the Limiting Reactant Using the Number of Grams
	Chapter Highlights
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Problems
		Challenge Problems
6 Energy Changes, Reaction Rates, and Equilibrium
	6.1 Energy
		6.1A The Units of Energy
		6.1B FOCUS ON THE HUMAN BODY: Energy and Nutrition
	6.2 Energy Changes in Reactions
		6.2A Bond Dissociation Energy
		6.2B Calculations Involving . H Values
	6.3 Energy Diagrams
	6.4 Reaction Rates
		6.4A How Concentration and Temperature Affect Reaction Rate
		6.4B Catalysts
		6.4C FOCUS ON THE HUMAN BODY: Lactase, a Biological Catalyst
		6.4D FOCUS ON THE ENVIRONMENT: Catalytic Converters
	6.5 Equilibrium
		6.5A The Equilibrium Constant
		6.5B The Magnitude of the Equilibrium Constant
		6.5C Calculating the Equilibrium Constant
	6.6 Le Châtelier’s Principle
		6.6A Concentration Changes
		6.6B Temperature Changes
		6.6C Pressure Changes
	6.7 FOCUS ON THE HUMAN BODY: Body Temperature
	Chapter Highlights
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Problems
		Challenge Problems
7 Gases, Liquids, and Solids
	7.1 The Three States of Matter
	7.2 Gases and Pressure
		7.2A Properties of Gases
		7.2B Gas Pressure
		7.2C FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Blood Pressure
	7.3 Gas Laws That Relate Pressure, Volume, and Temperature
		7.3A Boyle’s Law—How the Pressure and Volume of a Gas Are Related
		7.3B Charles’s Law—How the Volume and Temperature of a Gas Are Related
		7.3C Gay–Lussac’s Law—How the Pressure and Temperature of a Gas
 Are Related
		7.3D The Combined Gas Law
	7.4 Avogadro’s Law—How Volume and Moles Are Related
	7.5 The Ideal Gas Law
	7.6 Dalton’s Law and Partial Pressures
	7.7 Intermolecular Forces, Boiling Point, and Melting Point
		7.7A London Dispersion Forces
		7.7B Dipole–Dipole Interactions
		7.7C Hydrogen Bonding
		7.7D Boiling Point and Melting Point
	7.8 The Liquid State
		7.8A Vapor Pressure
		7.8B Viscosity and Surface Tension
	7.9 The Solid State
	7.10 Specific Heat
	7.11 Energy and Phase Changes
		7.11A Converting a Solid to a Liquid
		7.11B Converting a Liquid to a Gas
		7.11C Converting a Solid to a Gas
	7.12 Heating and Cooling Curves
		7.12A Heating Curves
		7.12B Cooling Curves
		7.12C Combining Energy Calculations
	Chapter Highlights
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations—The Gas Laws
		Problems
		Challenge Problems
8 Solutions
	8.1 Mixtures
		8.1A Solutions
		8.1B Colloids and Suspensions
	8.2 Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
		8.2A Classifi cation
		8.2B Equivalents
	8.3 Solubility—General Features
		8.3A Basic Principles
		8.3B Ionic Compounds—Additional Principles
	8.4 Solubility—Effects of Temperature and Pressure
		8.4A Temperature Effects
		8.4B Pressure Effects
	8.5 Concentration Units—Percent Concentration
		8.5A Weight/Volume Percent
		8.5B Volume/Volume Percent
		8.5C Using a Percent Concentration as a Conversion Factor
		8.5D Parts Per Million
	8.6 Concentration Units—Molarity
	8.7 Dilution
	8.8 Colligative Properties
		8.8A Boiling Point Elevation
		8.8B Freezing Point Depression
	8.9 Osmosis and Dialysis
		8.9A Osmotic Pressure
		8.9B FOCUS ON THE HUMAN BODY: Osmosis and Biological Membranes
		8.9C FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Dialysis
	Chapter Highlights
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Key Equations—Concentration
		Problems
		Challenge Problems
9 Acids and Bases
	9.1 Introduction to Acids and Bases
		9.1A Brønsted–Lowry Acids
		9.1B Brønsted–Lowry Bases
	9.2 The Reaction of a Brønsted–Lowry Acid with a Brønsted–Lowry Base
	9.3 Acid and Base Strength
		9.3A Relating Acid and Base Strength
		9.3B Using Acid Strength to Predict the Direction of Equilibrium
	9.4 Equilibrium and Acid Dissociation Constants
	9.5 The Dissociation of Water
	9.6 The pH Scale
		9.6A Calculating pH
		9.6B Calculating pH Using a Calculator
		9.6C FOCUS ON THE HUMAN BODY: The pH of Body Fluids
	9.7 Common Acid–Base Reactions
		9.7A Reaction of Acids with Hydroxide Bases
		9.7B Reaction of Acids with Bicarbonate and Carbonate
	9.8 The Acidity and Basicity of Salt Solutions
	9.9 Titration
	9.10 Buffers
		9.10A General Characteristics of a Buffer
		9.10B Calculating the pH of a Buffer
		9.10C FOCUS ON THE ENVIRONMENT: Acid Rain and a Naturally
 Buffered Lake
	9.11 FOCUS ON THE HUMAN BODY: Buffers in the Blood
	Chapter Highlights
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Problems
		Challenge Problems
10 Nuclear Chemistry
	10.1 Introduction
		10.1A Isotopes
		10.1B Types of Radiation
	10.2 Nuclear Reactions
		10.2A Alpha Emission
		10.2B Beta Emission
		10.2C Positron Emission
		10.2D Gamma Emission
	10.3 Half-Life
		10.3A General Features
		10.3B Archaeological Dating
	10.4 Detecting and Measuring Radioactivity
		10.4A Measuring the Radioactivity in a Sample
		10.4B FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: The Effects of Radioactivity
		10.4C Measuring Human Exposure to Radioactivity
	10.5 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Medical Uses of Radioisotopes
		10.5A Radioisotopes Used in Diagnosis
		10.5B Radioisotopes Used in Treatment
		10.5C Positron Emission Tomography—PET Scans
	10.6 Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion
		10.6A Nuclear Fission
		10.6B Nuclear Fusion
	10.7 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Medical Imaging Without
 Radioactivity
	Chapter Highlights
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Problems
		Challenge Problems
11 Introduction to Organic Molecules and Functional Groups
	11.1 Introduction to Organic Chemistry
	11.2 Characteristic Features of Organic Compounds
	11.3 Shapes of Organic Molecules
	11.4 Drawing Organic Molecules
		11.4A Condensed Structures
		11.4B Skeletal Structures
	11.5 Functional Groups
		11.5A Hydrocarbons
		11.5B Compounds Containing a Single Bond to a Heteroatom
		11.5C Compounds Containing a C O Group
	11.6 Properties of Organic Compounds
		11.6A Polarity
		11.6B Solubility
		11.6C FOCUS ON THE ENVIRONMENT: Environmental Pollutants
	11.7 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Vitamins
		11.7A Vitamin A
		11.7B Vitamin C
	Chapter Highlights
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Problems
		Challenge Problems
12 Alkanes
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Simple Alkanes
		12.2A Acyclic Alkanes Having Fewer Than Five Carbons
		12.2B Acyclic Alkanes Having Five or More Carbons
		12.2C Classifying Carbon Atoms
		12.2D Bond Rotation and Skeletal Structures for Acyclic Alkanes
	12.3 An Introduction to Nomenclature
		12.3A The IUPAC System of Nomenclature
		12.3B FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Naming New Drugs
	12.4 Alkane Nomenclature
		12.4A Naming Substituents
		12.4B Naming an Acyclic Alkane
	12.5 Cycloalkanes
		12.5A Simple Cycloalkanes
		12.5B Naming Cycloalkanes
	12.6 FOCUS ON THE ENVIRONMENT: Fossil Fuels
	12.7 Physical Properties
	12.8 FOCUS ON THE ENVIRONMENT: Combustion
	12.9 Halogenation of Alkanes
	Chapter Highlights
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Problems
		Challenge Problems
13 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
	13.1 Alkenes and Alkynes
	13.2 Nomenclature of Alkenes and Alkynes
	13.3 Cis–Trans Isomers
		13.3A Stereoisomers—A New Class of Isomer
		13.3B FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Saturated and Unsaturated
 Fatty Acids
	13.4 Interesting Alkenes in Food and Medicine
	13.5 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Oral Contraceptives
	13.6 Reactions of Alkenes
		13.6A Addition of Hydrogen—Hydrogenation
		13.6B Addition of Halogen—Halogenation
		13.6C Addition of Hydrogen Halides—Hydrohalogenation
		13.6D Addition of Water—Hydration
	13.7 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Margarine or Butter
	13.8 Polymers—The Fabric of Modern Society
		13.8A Synthetic Polymers
		13.8B FOCUS ON THE ENVIRONMENT: Polymer Recycling
	13.9 Aromatic Compounds
	13.10 Nomenclature of Benzene Derivatives
		13.10A Monosubstituted Benzenes
		13.10B Disubstituted Benzenes
		13.10C Polysubstituted Benzenes
		13.10D Aromatic Compounds with More Than One Ring
	13.11 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Aromatic Drugs, Sunscreens,
 and Carcinogens
	13.12 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Phenols
 as Antioxidants
	13.13 Reactions of Aromatic Compounds
		13.13A Chlorination and the Synthesis of the Pesticide DDT
		13.13B FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Nitration and
 Sulfa Drugs
		13.13C Sulfonation and Detergent Synthesis
	Chapter Highlights
		Key Terms
		Key Reactions
		Key Concepts
		Problems
		Challenge Problems
14 Organic Compounds That Contain Oxygen, Halogen, or Sulfur
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Structure and Properties of Alcohols
	14.3 Nomenclature of Alcohols
	14.4 Interesting Alcohols
	14.5 Reactions of Alcohols
		14.5A Dehydration
		14.5B Oxidation
		14.5C FOCUS ON THE HUMAN BODY: Oxidation and Blood Alcohol Screening
	14.6 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Ethanol, the Most Widely Abused Drug
		14.6A The Metabolism of Ethanol
		14.6B Health Effects of Alcohol Consumption
	14.7 Structure and Properties of Ethers
		14.7A Physical Properties
		14.7B Naming Ethers
	14.8 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Ethers as Anesthetics
	14.9 Alkyl Halides
		14.9A Physical Properties
		14.9B Nomenclature
		14.9C Interesting Alkyl Halides
		14.9D FOCUS ON THE ENVIRONMENT: Alkyl Halides and
 the Ozone Layer
	14.10 Organic Compounds That Contain Sulfur
	Chapter Highlights
		Key Terms
		Key Reactions
		Key Concepts
		Problems
		Challenge Problems
15 The Three-Dimensional Shape of Molecules
	15.1 Isomers—A Review
	15.2 Looking Glass Chemistry—Molecules and Their Mirror Images
		15.2A What It Means to Be Chiral or Achiral
		15.2B The Chirality of Molecules
		15.2C Chirality in Nature
	15.3 Chirality Centers
		15.3A Locating Chirality Centers
		15.3B Drawing a Pair of Enantiomers
	15.4 Chirality Centers in Cyclic Compounds
		15.4A Locating Chirality Centers on Ring Carbons
		15.4B FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: The Unforgettable Legacy
 of Thalidomide
	15.5 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Chiral Drugs
		15.5A Chiral Pain Relievers
		15.5B Parkinson’s Disease and L-Dopa
	15.6 Fischer Projections
	15.7 Optical Activity
		15.7A The Physical Properties of Enantiomers
		15.7B Specifi c Rotation
	15.8 Compounds with Two or More Chirality Centers
	15.9 FOCUS ON THE HUMAN BODY: The Sense of Smell
	Chapter Highlights
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Problems
		Challenge Problems
16 Aldehydes and Ketones
	16.1 Structure and Bonding
	16.2 Nomenclature
		16.2A Naming Aldehydes
		16.2B Naming Ketones
	16.3 Physical Properties
	16.4 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Interesting Aldehydes
 and Ketones
	16.5 Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones
		16.5A General Considerations
		16.5B Oxidation of Aldehydes
	16.6 Reduction of Aldehydes and Ketones
		16.6A Specifi c Features of Carbonyl Reductions
		16.6B Examples of Carbonyl Reduction in Organic Synthesis
		16.6C FOCUS ON THE HUMAN BODY: Biological Reductions
	16.7 FOCUS ON THE HUMAN BODY: The Chemistry of Vision
	16.8 Acetal Formation
		16.8A Acetals and Hemiacetals
		16.8B Cyclic Hemiacetals
		16.8C Acetal Hydrolysis
	Chapter Highlights
		Key Terms
		Key Reactions
		Key Concepts
		Problems
		Challenge Problems
17 Carboxylic Acids, Esters, and Amides
	17.1 Structure and Bonding
	17.2 Nomenclature
		17.2A Naming a Carboxylic Acid—RCOOH
		17.2B Naming an Ester—RCOOR
		17.2C Naming an Amide
	17.3 Physical Properties
	17.4 Interesting Carboxylic Acids in Consumer Products
 and Medicines
		17.4A FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Skin Care Products
		17.4B FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Aspirin and
 Anti-Infl ammatory Agents
	17.5 Interesting Esters and Amides
	17.6 The Acidity of Carboxylic Acids
		17.6A Reactions with Bases
		17.6B Carboxylate Anions—Salts of Carboxylic Acids
		17.6C How Does Soap Clean Away Dirt
	17.7 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Aspirin
	17.8 The Conversion of Carboxylic Acids to Esters and Amides
		17.8A Ester Formation
		17.8B Amide Formation
	17.9 Hydrolysis of Esters and Amides
		17.9A Ester Hydrolysis
		17.9B Amide Hydrolysis
		17.9C FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Olestra, a Synthetic Fat
	17.10 Synthetic Polymers in Modern Society—Polyamides
 and Polyesters
		17.10A Nylon—A Polyamide
		17.10B Polyesters
		17.10C FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Dissolving Sutures
		17.10D FOCUS ON THE ENVIRONMENT: Polymer Recycling
	17.11 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Penicillin
	Chapter Highlights
		Key Terms
		Key Reactions
		Key Concepts
		Problems
		Challenge Problems
18 Amines and Neurotransmitters
	3 Ionic Compounds
		3.1 Introduction to Bonding
		3.2 Ions
			3.2A Cations and Anions
			3.2B Relating Group Number to Ionic Charge for Main Group Elements
			3.2C Metals with Variable Charge
			3.2D FOCUS ON THE HUMAN BODY: Important Ions in the Body
		3.3 Ionic Compounds
			3.3A Formulas for Ionic Compounds
			3.3B FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Ionic Compounds
 in Consumer Products
		3.4 Naming Ionic Compounds
			3.4A Naming Cations
			3.4B Naming Anions
			3.4C Naming Ionic Compounds with Cations from Main Group Metals
			3.4D Naming Ionic Compounds Containing Metals
 with Variable Charge
			3.4E Writing a Formula from the Name of an Ionic Compound
		3.5 Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds
		3.6 Polyatomic Ions
			3.6A Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Ions
			3.6B Naming Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Ions
			3.6C FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Useful Ionic Compounds
			3.6D FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Treating Osteoporosis
		Chapter Highlights
			Key Terms
			Key Concepts
			Problems
			Challenge Problems
	18.1 Structure and Bonding
	18.2 Nomenclature
		18.2A Primary Amines
		18.2B Secondary and Tertiary Amines
		18.2C Aromatic Amines
		18.2D Miscellaneous Nomenclature Facts
	18.3 Physical Properties
	18.4 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Caffeine and Nicotine
		18.4A Caffeine
		18.4B Nicotine
	18.5 Alkaloids—Amines from Plant Sources
		18.5A Morphine and Related Alkaloids
		18.5B Quinine
		18.5C Atropine
	18.6 Amines as Bases
		18.6A Reaction of Amines with Acids
		18.6B Ammonium Salts
	18.7 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Ammonium Salts as Useful Drugs
	18.8 Neurotransmitters
		18.8A Norepinephrine and Dopamine
		18.8B Serotonin
		18.8C Acetylcholine and Nicotine Addiction
	18.9 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Epinephrine and Related Compounds
		18.9A Derivatives of 2-Phenylethylamine
		18.9B Drugs to Treat Asthma
	18.10 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Histamines and Antihistamines
	Chapter Highlights
		Key Terms
		Key Reactions
		Key Concepts
		Problems
		Challenge Problems
19 Lipids
	19.1 Introduction to Lipids
	19.2 Fatty Acids
	19.3 Waxes
	19.4 Triacylglycerols—Fats and Oils
		19.4A General Features
		19.4B FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Fats and Oils in the Diet
	19.5 Hydrolysis of Triacylglycerols
		19.5A FOCUS ON THE HUMAN BODY: Metabolism of Triacylglycerols
		19.5B Soap Synthesis
	19.6 Phospholipids
		19.6A Phosphoacylglycerols
		19.6B Sphingomyelins
	19.7 Cell Membranes
		19.7A Structure of the Cell Membrane
		19.7B Transport Across a Cell Membrane
	19.8 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Cholesterol, the Most Prominent Steroid
	19.9 Steroid Hormones
	19.10 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Fat-Soluble Vitamins
	19.11 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Prostaglandins and Leukotrienes
		19.11A Prostaglandins
		19.11B Asthma and Leukotrienes
	Chapter Highlights
		Key Terms
		Key Reactions
		Key Concepts
		Problems
		Challenge Problems
20 Carbohydrates
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Monosaccharides
		20.2A Fischer Projection Formulas
		20.2B Monosaccharides with More Than One Chirality Center
		20.2C Common Monosaccharides
	20.3 The Cyclic Forms of Monosaccharides
		20.3A The Cyclic Forms of D-Glucose
		20.3B Haworth Projections
		20.3C The Cyclic Forms of Fructose, a Ketohexose
	20.4 Reduction and Oxidation of Monosaccharides
		20.4A Reduction of the Aldehyde Carbonyl Group
		20.4B Oxidation of the Aldehyde Carbonyl Group
		20.4C FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Monitoring Glucose Levels
	20.5 Disaccharides
		20.5A FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Lactose Intolerance
		20.5B FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Sucrose and Artifi cial Sweeteners
	20.6 Polysaccharides
		20.6A Cellulose
		20.6B Starch
		20.6C Glycogen
	20.7 FOCUS ON THE HUMAN BODY: Useful Carbohydrate Derivatives
		20.7A Glycosaminoglycans
		20.7B Chitin
	20.8 FOCUS ON THE HUMAN BODY: Blood Type
	Chapter Highlights
		Key Terms
		Key Reactions
		Key Concepts
		Problems
		Challenge Problems
21 Amino Acids, Proteins, and Enzymes
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 Amino Acids
		21.2A General Features of Amino Acids
		21.2B Stereochemistry of Amino Acids
	21.3 Acid–Base Behavior of Amino Acids
	21.4 Peptides
	21.5 FOCUS ON THE HUMAN BODY: Biologically Active Peptides
		21.5A Neuropeptides—Enkephalins and Pain Relief
		21.5B Peptide Hormones—Oxytocin and Vasopressin
	21.6 Proteins
		21.6A Primary Structure
		21.6B Secondary Structure
		21.6C Tertiary and Quaternary Structure
	21.7 FOCUS ON THE HUMAN BODY: Common Proteins
		21.7A a-Keratins
		21.7B Collagen
		21.7C Hemoglobin and Myoglobin
	21.8 Protein Hydrolysis and Denaturation
		21.8A Protein Hydrolysis
		21.8B Protein Denaturation
	21.9 Enzymes—Characteristics and Classifi cation
		21.9A Characteristics of Enzymes
		21.9B Classifi cation of Enzymes
		21.9C Naming Enzymes
	21.10 How Enzymes Work
		21.10A Enzyme Specifi city
		21.10B Factors That Affect Enzyme Activity
		21.10C Allosteric Control
		21.10D Enzyme Inhibitors
	21.10E Zymogens
	21.11 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Using Enzymes to Diagnose
 and Treat Diseases
		21.11A Enzyme Levels as Diagnostic Tools
		21.11B Treating Disease with Drugs That Interact with Enzymes
	Chapter Highlights
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Problems
		Challenge Problems
22 Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis
	22.1 Nucleosides and Nucleotides
		22.1A Nucleosides—Joining a Monosaccharide and a Base
		22.1B Nucleotides—Joining a Nucleoside with a Phosphate
	22.2 Nucleic Acids
	22.3 The DNA Double Helix
	22.4 Replication
	22.5 RNA
	22.6 Transcription
	22.7 The Genetic Code
	22.8 Translation and Protein Synthesis
	22.9 Mutations and Genetic Diseases
	22.10 Recombinant DNA
		22.10A General Principles
		22.10B Polymerase Chain Reaction
		22.10C FOCUS ON THE HUMAN BODY: DNA Fingerprinting
	22.11 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Viruses
	Chapter Highlights
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Problems
		Challenge Problems
23 Metabolism and Energy Production
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 An Overview of Metabolism
		23.2A Stage [1]—Digestion
		23.2B Stages [2]–[4] of Catabolism
	23.3 ATP and Energy Production
		23.3A General Features of ATP Hydrolysis and Formation
		23.3B Coupled Reactions in Metabolic Pathways
		23.3C FOCUS ON THE HUMAN BODY: Creatine and Athletic Performance
	23.4 Coenzymes in Metabolism
		23.4A Coenzymes NAD+ and NADH
		23.4B Coenzymes FAD and FADH2
		23.4C Coenzyme A
	23.5 The Citric Acid Cycle
		23.5A Overview of the Citric Acid Cycle
		23.5B Specifi c Steps of the Citric Acid Cycle
	23.6 The Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative Phosphorylation
		23.6A The Electron Transport Chain
		23.6B ATP Synthesis by Oxidative Phosphorylation
		23.6C ATP Yield from Oxidative Phosphorylation
	23.7 FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Hydrogen Cyanide
	Chapter Highlights
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Problems
		Challenge Problems
24 Carbohydrate, Lipid, and Protein Metabolism
	24.1 Introduction
	24.2 Understanding Biochemical Reactions
	24.3 Glycolysis
		24.3A The Steps in Glycolysis
		24.3B The Net Result of Glycolysis
		24.3C Glycolysis and Other Hexoses
		24.3D FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Glycolysis and Cancer Cells
	24.4 The Fate of Pyruvate
		24.4A Conversion to Acetyl CoA
		24.4B FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Conversion to Lactate
		24.4C FOCUS ON HEALTH & MEDICINE: Conversion to Ethanol
	24.5 The ATP Yield from Glucose
	24.6 Gluconeogenesis
	24.7 The Catabolism of Triacylglycerols
		24.7A Glycerol Catabolism
		24.7B Fatty Acid Catabolism by ß-Oxidation
		24.7C The Energy Yield from Fatty Acid Oxidation
	24.8 Ketone Bodies
	24.9 Amino Acid Metabolism
		24.9A Degradation of Amino Acids—The Fate of the Amino Group
		24.9B Degradation of Amino Acids—The Fate of the Carbon Skeleton
	Chapter Highlights
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Problems
		Challenge Problems
25 Body Fluids
	25.1 Types of Body Fluids
	25.2 Composition of the Blood
		25.2A Types of Blood Cells
		25.2B Blood Plasma
		25.2C Blood Serum and Clotting
	25.3 The Transport of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
		25.3A Hemoglobin
		25.3B Delivering O2 and Removing CO2
		25.3C How CO2 Is Transported in the Blood
	25.4 Buffers in the Body
	25.5 The Blood–Brain Barrier
	25.6 The Role of the Kidneys
		25.6A How the Kidneys Filter the Blood
		25.6B Composition of Urine
		25.6C The Kidneys and pH, Fluid Balance, and Electrolyte Concentration
	Chapter Highlights
		Key Terms
		Key Concepts
		Problems
Appendixes  A
	Useful Mathematical Concepts
Appendixes B
	Answers to Selected In-Chapter and End-of-Chapter Problems
Glossary
Credits
Index