Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook

Front Cover......Page 1
Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Table of Contents......Page 6
Preface to the Fourth Edition......Page 20
Preface to the Third Edition......Page 24
Preface to the Second Edition......Page 28
Preface to the First Edition......Page 30
Foreword to the First Edition......Page 32
About the Author......Page 34
I: Design: Theory and Practice......Page 36
Gas Turbine Cycle in the Combined Cycle or Cogeneration Mode......Page 38
Gas Turbine Performance......Page 41
Gas Turbine Design Considerations......Page 46
Categories of Gas Turbines......Page 50
Frame Type Heavy-Duty Gas Turbines......Page 51
Aircraft-Derivative Gas Turbines......Page 65
Industrial-Type Gas Turbines......Page 74
Small Gas Turbines......Page 77
Vehicular Gas Turbines......Page 79
Truck Engines......Page 80
Microturbines......Page 85
Compressors......Page 86
Axial-Flow Compressors......Page 89
Centrifugal-Flow Compressors......Page 90
Regenerators/Recuperators......Page 92
Fuel Type......Page 94
Combustors......Page 96
Environmental Effects......Page 97
The Diffusion Type Combustor......Page 98
The Dry Low Emission Combustors......Page 101
Silo-Type Combustors and Side Combustors......Page 107
External (Experimental)......Page 108
Radial-Inflow Turbine......Page 111
Mixed-Flow Turbine......Page 112
Axial-Flow Turbines......Page 113
Materials......Page 115
Gas Turbine Heat Recovery......Page 118
Supplementary Firing of Heat Recovery Systems......Page 120
Instrumentation and Controls......Page 122
The Brayton Cycle......Page 124
Regeneration Effect......Page 127
Intercooling and Reheating Effects......Page 130
The Simple Cycle......Page 133
The Split-Shaft Simple Cycle......Page 135
The Regenerative Cycle......Page 136
The Inter-cooled Simple Cycle......Page 137
The Reheat Cycle......Page 138
The Steam Injection Cycle......Page 140
The Evaporative Regenerative Cycle......Page 144
The Brayton–Rankine Cycle......Page 145
Summation of Cycle Analysis......Page 148
A General Overview of Combined-Cycle Plants......Page 149
Compressed Air Energy Storage Cycle......Page 156
Inlet Cooling......Page 157
Evaporative Cooling of the Turbine......Page 159
Mechanical Refrigeration......Page 160
Absorption Cooling Systems......Page 161
Combination of Evaporative and Refrigerated Inlet Systems......Page 162
Mid-Compressor Flashing of Water......Page 163
Injection of Humidified and Heated Compressed Air......Page 164
Injection of Water or Steam at the Gas Turbine Compressor Exit......Page 165
Combination of Evaporative Cooling and Steam Injection......Page 166
Summation of the Power Augmentation Systems......Page 167
Bibliography......Page 172
Aerothermodynamics of Turbomachinery......Page 174
Ideal Gas......Page 175
Dry- and Wet-bulb Temperatures......Page 179
Temperature Measurement Devices......Page 181
Optical and Radiation Pyrometers......Page 183
Ideal Gas Laws......Page 184
Compressibility Effect......Page 185
Continuity Equation......Page 188
Momentum Equation......Page 189
Energy Equation......Page 191
Efficiencies......Page 192
Adiabatic Thermal Efficiency......Page 193
Polytropic Efficiency......Page 196
Dimensional Analysis......Page 198
Compressor Performance Characteristics......Page 201
Gas Turbine Performance Computation......Page 202
Bibliography......Page 211
Aircraft Propulsion......Page 212
Plant Location and Site Configuration......Page 214
Type of Fuel......Page 215
Enclosures......Page 218
Performance Standards......Page 219
ASME PTC 19.3: Part 3: Temperature Measurement Instruments and Apparatus......Page 220
ASME PTC 19.5: Flow Measurement, Published 2004......Page 221
ASME PTC 19.11: Steam and Water Sampling, Conditioning, and Analysis in the Power Cycle......Page 222
Object and Scope......Page 223
ASME Measurement of Exhaust Emissions from Stationary Gas Turbine Engines B133.9, Published 1994......Page 225
Mechanical Parameters......Page 226
ASME B133.4 Gas Turbine Control and Protection Systems, Published 1978 (Reaffirmed: 1997)......Page 227
ASME B133.9 Measurement of Exhaust Emissions from Stationary Gas Turbine Engines, Published: 1994......Page 228
API Std 614 Lubrication, Shaft-Sealing, and Control-Oil Systems and Auxiliaries for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry .........Page 229
API Std 671, Special Purpose Couplings for Petroleum,Chemical, and Gas Industry Services, Third Edition, October 1998......Page 230
Application of the Mechanical Standards to the Gas Turbine......Page 231
Gears......Page 238
Lubrication Systems......Page 240
Vibration Measurements......Page 241
Specifications......Page 243
Mathematical Analysis......Page 250
Undamped Free System......Page 252
Damped System......Page 253
Critically Damped System......Page 255
Underdamped System......Page 256
Forced Vibrations......Page 257
Unbalances......Page 259
Rigid Supports......Page 261
Flexible Supports......Page 263
Critical Speed Calculations for Rotor Bearing Systems......Page 265
Electromechanical Systems and Analogies......Page 267
Forces Acting on a Rotor-Bearing System......Page 268
Forces Generated by Rotor Motion......Page 269
Rotor-Bearing System Instabilities......Page 271
Forced (Resonant) Vibration......Page 272
Periodic Loading......Page 273
Self-Excited Instabilities......Page 274
Oil Whirl......Page 275
Aerodynamic Whirl......Page 276
Campbell Diagram......Page 279
Bibliography......Page 285
II: Major Components......Page 286
6 Centrifugal Compressors......Page 288
Centrifugal Compressor Components......Page 289
Inlet Guide Vanes......Page 295
Impeller......Page 297
Inducer......Page 299
Centrifugal Section of an Impeller......Page 302
Boundary-Layer Development......Page 304
Leakage......Page 305
Vane Thickness......Page 306
Stodola Slip Factor......Page 307
Stanitz Slip Factor......Page 308
Diffusers......Page 309
Scroll or Volute......Page 310
Centrifugal Compressor Performance......Page 313
Shock in Rotor Losses......Page 314
Clearance Loss......Page 315
Recirculating Loss......Page 316
Vaneless Diffuser Loss......Page 317
Compressor Surge......Page 318
Effects of Gas Composition......Page 324
External Causes and Effects of Surge......Page 325
Surge Detection and Control......Page 326
Process Centrifugal Compressors......Page 327
Compressor Configuration......Page 330
Impeller Fabrication......Page 333
Bibliography......Page 334
Introduction......Page 338
Blade and Cascade Nomenclature......Page 341
Elementary Airfoil Theory......Page 344
Laminar-Flow Airfoils......Page 346
Velocity Triangles......Page 348
Degree of Reaction......Page 350
Radial Equilibrium......Page 354
Diffusion Factor......Page 355
The Incidence Rule......Page 356
The Deviation Rule......Page 358
Compressor Surge......Page 363
Compressor Stall......Page 366
Rotating Stall......Page 367
Stall Flutter......Page 368
Compressor Performance Parameters......Page 372
Performance Losses in an Axial-Flow Compressor......Page 375
New Developments in Axial-Flow Compressors......Page 377
Axial-Flow Compressor Research......Page 379
Blade Profile......Page 380
Compressor Blade Material......Page 386
Acknowledgments......Page 389
Bibliography......Page 390
Hydraulic Radial-Inflow Turbines......Page 392
Radial-Inflow Turbines for Gas Applications......Page 393
Turbine Configurations......Page 396
Thermodynamic and Aerodynamic Theory......Page 403
Turbine Design Considerations......Page 409
Performance of a Radial-Inflow Turbine......Page 411
Losses in a Radial-Inflow Turbine......Page 415
Radial-Inflow Turbine Applications......Page 416
Bibliography......Page 418
Turbine Geometry......Page 420
Thermodynamic and Aerodynamic Theory......Page 422
Degree of Reaction......Page 426
Work Factor......Page 427
Zero-Exit Swirl Diagram......Page 428
Impulse Turbine......Page 429
Turbine Blade Cooling Concepts......Page 436
Water/Steam Cooling......Page 440
Film and Convection Cooling Design......Page 441
Multiple Small-Hole Design......Page 443
Water-Cooled Turbine Blades......Page 445
Cooled-Turbine Aerodynamics......Page 447
Turbine Losses......Page 455
Bibliography......Page 460
Gas Turbine Combustors......Page 462
Can-Annular and Annular Combustors......Page 464
Combustion in Combustors......Page 466
The Diffusion-Type Combustor......Page 467
Stoichiometric Proportions......Page 473
Combustion Liners......Page 474
Reliability of Combustors......Page 475
Combustion Process......Page 476
Oxides of Nitrogen......Page 478
NOx Prevention......Page 480
The Diffusion Combustor......Page 483
Combustion and Dilution......Page 487
Fuel Atomization and Ignition......Page 488
The Dry Low Emission Combustors......Page 490
Primary......Page 502
Piloted Premix......Page 503
Tertiary Full-Speed No Load (FSNL)......Page 504
Silo-Type Combustors......Page 512
Operation of DLN/DLE Combustors......Page 514
Surface Temperatures......Page 516
Catalytic Combustor Design......Page 518
Catalytic Reactor......Page 519
Selective Catalytic Reactor......Page 520
Transition Pieces......Page 522
III: Materials, Fuel Technology, and Fuel Systems......Page 526
11 Materials......Page 528
Creep and Rupture......Page 531
Ductility and Fracture......Page 532
Thermal Fatigue......Page 533
Corrosion......Page 534
Reactions – Ni-Base Alloys......Page 536
Gas Turbine Materials......Page 538
Alloy 706 Nickel-Based Alloy......Page 540
Compressor Blades......Page 542
Ceramics......Page 543
Coatings......Page 544
Future Coatings......Page 548
Bibliography......Page 549
12 Fuels......Page 550
Fuel Specifications......Page 554
Liquid Fuels......Page 556
Liquid Fuel Handling and Treatment......Page 558
Heavy Fuels......Page 566
Fuel Gas Handling and Treatment......Page 570
Equipment for Removal of Particulates and Liquids from Fuel Gas Systems......Page 575
Fuel Heating......Page 577
Cleaning of Turbine Components......Page 578
Hot Section Wash......Page 579
Compressor Washing......Page 580
Fuel Economics......Page 581
Operating Experience......Page 583
Heat Tracing of Piping Systems......Page 584
Stream Tracing Systems......Page 585
Electric Tracing......Page 586
Floating Roof Tanks......Page 587
Bibliography......Page 588
IV: Auxiliary Components and Accessories......Page 590
Rolling Bearings......Page 592
Load ratings......Page 596
Wear......Page 597
Journal Bearings......Page 598
Bearing Design Principles......Page 600
Tilting-Pad Journal Bearings......Page 604
Bearing Materials......Page 607
Thrust Bearings......Page 608
Factors Affecting Thrust-Bearing Design......Page 612
Seals......Page 613
Labyrinth Seals......Page 614
Ring (Bushing) Seals......Page 618
Mechanical (Face) Seals......Page 620
Mechanical Seal Selection and Application......Page 624
Product......Page 625
Abrasion......Page 626
Seal Environment......Page 627
Seal Gland Plate......Page 628
Seal Systems......Page 629
Associated Oil System......Page 630
Dry Gas Seals......Page 631
Tandem Dry Gas Seal with Labyrinth......Page 634
Operating Range of Dry Gas Seals......Page 635
Dry Gas Seal Degradation......Page 636
Contamination from Seal Gas Supply......Page 637
Bibliography......Page 638
14 Gears......Page 640
Gear Types......Page 642
Factors Affecting Gear Design......Page 643
Pressure Angle......Page 644
Helix Angle......Page 646
Tooth Hardness......Page 647
Gear Accuracy......Page 648
Service Factor......Page 649
Lubrication......Page 650
Hobbing and Shaving......Page 651
Grinding......Page 653
Gear Noise......Page 654
Installation and Initial Operation......Page 655
Gear Failures......Page 657
Acknowledgement......Page 659
Bibliography......Page 660
V: Installation, Operation, and Maintenance......Page 662
Lubrication Oil System......Page 664
Seal Oil System......Page 669
Lubrication Management Program......Page 671
Oil Contamination......Page 672
Filter Selection......Page 673
Cleaning and Flushing......Page 675
Oil Analysis Tests......Page 676
Particle Counting......Page 677
Filter Analysis......Page 678
Ferrous Density......Page 679
Elemental Analysis......Page 680
Gearboxes......Page 681
Clean Oil Systems......Page 682
Coupling Lubrication......Page 683
Bibliography......Page 684
16 Spectrum Analysis......Page 686
Vibration Measurement......Page 691
Velocity Transducers......Page 692
Dynamic Pressure Transducers......Page 693
Taping Data......Page 694
Interpretation of Vibration Spectra......Page 695
Subsynchronous Vibration Analysis Using RTA......Page 699
Synchronous and Harmonic Spectra......Page 703
Bibliography......Page 707
Rotor Imbalance......Page 710
Balancing Procedures......Page 715
Orbital Balancing......Page 716
Modal Balancing......Page 717
Multiplane Balancing (Influence Coefficient Method)......Page 718
Application of Balancing Techniques......Page 721
User\'s Guide for Multiplane Balancing......Page 723
Bibliography......Page 725
18 Couplings and Alignment......Page 728
Gear Couplings......Page 730
Oil-Filled Couplings......Page 733
Continuously Lubricated Couplings......Page 734
Gear Coupling Failure Modes......Page 735
Metal Diaphragm Couplings......Page 736
Metal Disc Couplings......Page 739
Turbomachinery Uprates......Page 740
Curvic Couplings......Page 744
Shaft Alignment......Page 745
The Prealignment Survey......Page 746
Cold Alignment......Page 747
Hot Alignment Check......Page 750
Bibliography......Page 753
Control Systems......Page 756
Starting Preparations......Page 763
Start-up Description......Page 764
Condition Monitoring Systems......Page 765
Requirements for an Effective Diagnostic System......Page 767
Monitoring Software......Page 768
Implementation of a Condition Monitoring System......Page 770
Plant Power Optimization......Page 771
Online Optimization Process......Page 772
Life Cycle Costs......Page 774
Instrumentation Requirements......Page 776
Criteria for the Collection of Aerothermal Data......Page 777
Temperature and Pressure Measurement for Compressors and Turbines......Page 780
Thermocouples......Page 781
Pyrometers......Page 782
Vibration Measurement......Page 783
Selection of Systems for Analyses of Vibration Data......Page 785
Fuel System......Page 786
Mechanical Baseline......Page 787
Aerothermal Baseline......Page 788
Data Trending......Page 789
The Gas Turbine......Page 791
Compressor Aerothermal Characteristics and Compressor Surge......Page 794
Compressor Analysis......Page 795
Combustor Analysis......Page 796
Turbine Analysis......Page 797
Turbine Efficiency......Page 799
Mechanical Problem Diagnostics......Page 800
Summary......Page 802
Bibliography......Page 803
Introduction......Page 804
Performance Codes......Page 805
Pressure Measurement......Page 806
Temperature Measurement......Page 809
Flow Measurement......Page 810
Gas Turbine Test......Page 812
Gas Turbine......Page 813
Compressor Module......Page 814
Combustor Module......Page 815
Expander Module......Page 816
Performance Computations......Page 817
General Governing Equations......Page 818
Gas Turbine Performance Calculation......Page 821
Gas Turbine Performance Calculations......Page 827
Correction Factors for Gas Turbines......Page 828
Vibration Measurements......Page 831
Emissions......Page 832
Plant Losses......Page 835
Bibliography......Page 837
Philosophy of Maintenance......Page 838
Maximization of Equipment Efficiency and Effectiveness......Page 840
Organization Structures for a Performance-Based Total Productive Maintenance Program......Page 842
Implementation of a Performance-Based Total Productive Maintenance......Page 843
b. Foreperson and Lead Machinist......Page 845
a. Update Training......Page 846
c. Basic Machinist Training......Page 848
Spare Parts Inventory......Page 849
Availability and Reliability......Page 850
Redesign for Higher Machinery Reliability......Page 852
Gas Turbine Start-up......Page 854
Advanced Gas Turbines......Page 856
Axial-Flow Compressor......Page 857
Dry Low NOx Combustors......Page 858
Axial-Flow Turbine......Page 861
Maintenance Scheduling......Page 862
Operation and Service Manuals......Page 864
Written Memos......Page 865
Inspection......Page 866
Long-Term Service Agreements......Page 868
Borescope Inspection......Page 870
Maintenance of Gas Turbine Components......Page 876
Compressors......Page 878
Compressor Cleaning......Page 885
Compressor Water Wash......Page 886
Off-Line Crank Wash Cleaning System......Page 888
On-Line and Off-Line Water Wash Fluids......Page 891
Off-Line Crank Wash Procedure......Page 892
Combustors......Page 893
Turbines......Page 896
Rejuvenation of Used Turbine Blades......Page 901
Rotor Dynamic System Characteristics......Page 904
Bearing Maintenance......Page 905
Failure Initiation......Page 912
Failure Protection......Page 913
Repair and Rehabilitation of Turbomachinery Foundations......Page 915
Installation Defects......Page 916
Increasing Mass and Rigidity......Page 917
Bibliography......Page 918
22 Case Histories......Page 920
Axial-Flow Compressors......Page 921
Combustion Systems......Page 932
Axial-Flow Turbines......Page 937
Density......Page 958
Pressure......Page 959
Energy and Power......Page 960
Universal Gas Constant......Page 961
Miscellaneous Constants......Page 962
A......Page 964
B......Page 967
C......Page 968
D......Page 972
E......Page 973
F......Page 974
G......Page 976
H......Page 977
I......Page 978
L......Page 979
M......Page 980
O......Page 982
P......Page 983
R......Page 984
S......Page 986
T......Page 988
V......Page 990
Z......Page 991