Fundamentals of strength : principles, experiment, and applications of an internal state variable constitutive formulation

Content: FOREWORD xi     PREFACE xiii     ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xv     HOW TO USE THIS BOOK xvii     LIST OF SYMBOLS xxi     1 MEASURING THE STRENGTH OF METALS 1     1.1 How Is Strength Measured? 1     1.2 The Tensile Test 3     1.3 Stress in a Test Specimen 6     1.4 Strain in a Test Specimen 6     1.5 The Elastic Stress versus Strain Curve 7     1.6 The Elastic Modulus 8     1.7 Lateral Strains and Poisson's Ratio 9     1.8 Defining Strength 11     1.9 Stress-Strain Curve 12     1.10 The True Stress-True Strain Conversion 16     1.11 Example Tension Tests 18     1.12 Accounting for Strain Measurement Errors 22     1.13 Formation of a Neck in a Tensile Specimen 25     1.14 Strain Rate 27     1.15 Measuring Strength: Summary 29     Exercises 29     References 35     2 STRUCTURE AND BONDING 36     2.1 Forces and Resultant Energies Associated with an Ionic Bond 36     2.2 Elastic Straining and the Force versus Separation Diagram 39     2.3 Crystal Structure 40     2.4 Plastic Deformation 42     2.5 Dislocations 46     2.6 Summary: Structure and Bonding 51     Exercises 52     References 53     3 CONTRIBUTIONS TO STRENGTH 54     3.1 Strength of a Single Crystal 54     3.2 The Peierls Stress 59     3.3 The Importance of Available Slip Systems and Geometry of HCP Metals 61     3.4 Contributions from Grain Boundaries 63     3.5 Contributions from Impurity Atoms 66     3.6 Contributions from Stored Dislocations 68     3.7 Contributions from Precipitates 71     3.8 Introduction to Strengthening: Summary 71     Exercises 72     References 75     4 DISLOCATION-OBSTACLE INTERACTIONS 76     4.1 A Simple Dislocation-Obstacle Profile 76     4.2 Thermal Energy: Boltzmann's Equation 77     4.3 The Implication of 0 K 78     4.4 Addition of a Second Obstacle to a Slip Plane 79     4.5 Kinetics 80     4.6 Analysis of Experimental Data 83     4.7 Multiple Obstacles 87     4.8 Kinetics of Hardening 88     4.9 Summary 89     Exercises 90     References 92     5 A CONSTITUTIVE LAW FOR METAL DEFORMATION 94     5.1 Constitutive Laws in Engineering Design and Materials Processing 94     5.2 Simple Hardening Models 98     5.3 State Variables 102     5.4 Defining a State Variable in Metal Deformation 103     5.5 The Mechanical Threshold Stress Model 104     5.6 Common Deviations from Model Behavior 109     5.7 Summary: Introduction to Constitutive Modeling 112     Exercises 113     References 115     6 Further MTS Model Developments 117     6.1 Removing the Temperature Dependence of the Shear Modulus 117     6.2 Introducing a More Descriptive Obstacle Profile 119     6.3 Dealing with Multiple Obstacles 122     6.4 Defining the Activation Volume in the Presence of Multiple Obstacle Populations 131     6.5 The Evolution Equation 132     6.6 Adiabatic Deformation 133     6.7 Summary: Further MTS Model Developments 135     Exercises 137     References 141     7 DATA ANALYSIS: DERIVING MTS MODEL PARAMETERS 142     7.1 A Hypothetical Alloy 142     7.2 Pure Fosium 143     7.3 Hardening in Pure Fosium 145     7.4 Yield Stress Kinetics in Unstrained FoLLyalloy 146     7.5 Hardening in FoLLyalloy 150     7.6 Evaluating the Stored Dislocation-Obstacle Population 151     7.7 Deriving the Evolution Equation 160     7.8 The Constitutive Law for FoLLyalloy 163     7.9 Data Analysis: Summary 164     Exercises 165     8 APPLICATION TO COPPER AND NICKEL 167     8.1 Pure Copper 168     8.2 Follansbee and Kocks Experiments 169     8.3 Temperature-Dependent Stress-Strain Curves 177     8.4 Eleiche and Campbell Measurements in Torsion 181     8.5 Analysis of Deformation in Nickel 187     8.6 Predicted Stress-Strain Curves in Nickel and Comparison with Experiment 192     8.7 Application to Shock-Deformed Nickel 195     8.8 Deformation in Nickel plus Carbon Alloys 198     8.9 Monel 400: Analysis of Grain-Size Dependence 200     8.10 Copper-Aluminum Alloys 205     8.11 Summary 211     Exercises 213     References 214     9 APPLICATION TO BCC METALS AND ALLOYS 216     9.1 Pure BCC Metals 217     9.2 Comparison with Campbell and Ferguson Measurements 225     9.3 Trends in the Activation Volume for Pure BCC Metals 228     9.4 Structure Evolution in BCC Pure Metals and Alloys 231     9.5 Analysis of the Constitutive Behavior of a Fictitious BCC Alloy: UfKonel 232     9.6 Analysis of the Constitutive Behavior of AISI 1018 Steel 237     9.7 Analysis of the Constitutive Behavior of Polycrystalline Vanadium 248     9.8 Deformation Twinning in Vanadium 256     9.9 A Model for Dynamic Strain Aging in Vanadium 258     9.10 Analysis of Deformation Behavior of Polycrystalline Niobium 263     9.11 Summary 272     Exercises 275     References 280     10 APPLICATION TO HCP METALS AND ALLOYS 282     10.1 Pure Zinc 283     10.2 Kinetics of Yield in Pure Cadmium 288     10.3 Structure Evolution in Pure Cadmium 292     10.4 Pure Magnesium 296     10.5 Magnesium Alloy AZ31 300     10.6 Pure Zirconium 311     10.7 Structure Evolution in Zirconium 317     10.8 Analysis of Deformation in Irradiated Zircaloy-2 325     10.9 Analysis of Deformation Behavior of Polycrystalline Titanium 333     10.10 Analysis of Deformation Behavior of Titanium Alloy Ti-6Al-4V 350     10.11 Summary 356     Exercises 360     References 364     11 APPLICATION TO AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS 367     11.1 Variation of Yield Stress with Temperature and Strain Rate in Annealed Materials 367     11.2 Nitrogen in Austenitic Stainless Steels 372     11.3 The Hammond and Sikka Study of 316 381     11.4 Modeling the Stress-Strain Curve 382     11.5 Dynamic Strain Aging in Austenitic Stainless Steels 386     11.6 Application of the Model to Irradiation-Damaged Material 391     11.7 Summary 394     Exercises 396     References 400     12 APPLICATION TO THE STRENGTH OF HEAVILY DEFORMED METALS 403     12.1 Complications Introduced at Large Deformations 404     12.2 Stress Dependence of the Normalized Activation Energy goepsilon 404     12.3 Addition of Stage IV Hardening to the Evolution Law 408     12.4 Grain Refinement 411     12.5 Application to Large-Strain ECAP Processing of Copper 417     12.6 An Alternative Method to Assess ECAP-Induced Strengthening 423     12.7 A Large-Strain Constitutive Description of Nickel 427     12.8 Application to Large-Strain ECAP Processing of Nickel 431     12.9 Application to Large-Strain ECAP Processing of Austenitic Stainless Steel 435     12.10 Analysis of Fine-Grain Processed Tungsten 444     12.11 Summary 447     Exercises 449     References 452     13 SUMMARY AND STATUS OF MODEL DEVELOPMENT 455     13.1 Analyzing the Temperature-Dependent Yield Stress 456     13.2 Stress Dependence of the Normalized Activation Energy goepsilon 459     13.3 Evolution 460     13.4 Temperature and Strain-Rate Dependence of Evolution 461     13.5 The Effects of Deformation Twinning 466     13.6 The Signature of Dynamic Strain Aging 468     13.7 Adding Insight to Complex Processing Routes 473     13.8 Temperature Limits 479     13.9 Summary 483     References 485     INDEX 488