Fundamentals of Renewable Energy Processes, Second Edition

Cover Page
......Page 1
Copyright......Page 2
Foreword to the Second Edition......Page 3
Foreword to the First Edition......Page 5
Acknowledgements......Page 6
Units and Constants......Page 7
Energy and Utility......Page 8
Conservation of Energy......Page 10
The Energy Utilization Rate......Page 11
The Population Explosion......Page 15
The Market Penetration Function......Page 16
Planetary Energy Resources......Page 22
Energy Utilization......Page 26
The Ecology Question......Page 30
Subterranean......Page 32
Nuclear Energy......Page 33
Fission......Page 35
Fusion......Page 40
Cold Fusion......Page 43
Financing......Page 50
Temperature......Page 64
The Perfect-Gas Law......Page 65
Specific Heat at Constant Volume......Page 66
The First Law of Thermodynamics......Page 67
Specific Heat at Constant Pressure......Page 68
Adiabatic Processes......Page 69
Abrupt Compression......Page 70
Gradual Compression......Page 73
p-V Diagrams......Page 74
Polytropic Law......Page 75
Work Done under Adiabatic Expansion......Page 76
Isothermal Processes......Page 77
Enthalpy......Page 79
Degrees of Freedom......Page 81
Entropy......Page 82
Changes in Entropy......Page 83
Reversibility......Page 85
Negentropy......Page 87
How to Plot Statistics......Page 89
Maxwellian Distribution......Page 90
Fermi--Dirac Distribution......Page 93
Boltzmann's Law......Page 95
Heats of Combustion......Page 101
Carnot Efficiency......Page 104
Engine Types......Page 105
Efficiency of an Otto Engine......Page 108
Knocking......Page 113
Hybrid Engines for Automobiles......Page 117
The Stirling Engine......Page 118
The Kinematic Stirling Engine......Page 119
The Free-piston Stirling Engine......Page 125
Cryogenic Engines......Page 127
Conclusions......Page 130
OTEC Configurations......Page 141
Turbines......Page 144
OTEC Efficiency......Page 147
Example of OTEC Design......Page 148
Siting......Page 150
Experimental Observations......Page 155
Thermoelectric Thermometers......Page 160
The Thermoelectric Generator......Page 162
Figure of Merit of a Material......Page 166
The Wiedemann--Franz--Lorenz Law......Page 168
Thermal Conductivity in Solids......Page 171
Performance of Thermoelectric Materials......Page 173
Some Applications of Thermoelectric Generators......Page 177
Design of a Thermoelectric Generator......Page 179
Thermoelectric Refrigerators and Heat Pumps......Page 182
Design Using an Existing Thermocouple......Page 183
Design Based on Given Semiconductors......Page 186
Battery Architecture......Page 190
The Seebeck Effect......Page 192
The Peltier Effect......Page 195
The Thomson Effect......Page 196
Kelvin's Relations......Page 197
Directions and Signs......Page 201
Introduction......Page 221
Thermionic Emission......Page 224
Electron Transport......Page 226
The Child--Langmuir Law......Page 228
Interelectrode Potentials......Page 233
The Open-Circuit Voltage......Page 235
Maximum Power Output......Page 236
Efficiency......Page 237
Radiation Losses......Page 238
Excess Electron Energy......Page 241
Heat Conduction......Page 242
Real Vacuum-Diodes......Page 243
Vapor Diodes......Page 244
Cesium Adsorption......Page 245
Contact IonizationAlso known as ``thermal'' or ``surface'' ionization.......Page 248
Thermionic Ion Emission......Page 249
Space Charge Neutralization Conditions......Page 250
More V-J Characteristics......Page 251
High-Pressure Diodes......Page 257
Operating Principle......Page 265
Vapour Pressure......Page 267
Pressure Drop in the Sodium Vapor Column......Page 269
V-I Characteristics of an AMTEC......Page 271
Efficiency......Page 274
Thermodynamics of an AMTEC......Page 276
8 Radio-Noise Generators......Page 280
Introduction......Page 285
Capacity......Page 286
Ragone Plot......Page 291
Temperature of Operation......Page 292
Type of Fuel......Page 293
Chemical Nature of the Electrolyte......Page 294
Secondary Batteries......Page 295
Methanol Fuel Cells......Page 296
Demonstration Fuel Cell (KOH)......Page 298
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs)......Page 299
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs)......Page 301
Ceramic Fuel Cells (SOFCs)......Page 303
Solid-Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells......Page 312
Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFCs)......Page 320
Direct Formic Acid Fuel Cells (DFAFCs)......Page 321
Solid Acid Fuel Cells (SAFCs)......Page 322
Metallic Fuel Cells---Zinc--Air Fuel Cells......Page 323
Stationary Power Plants......Page 324
Automotive Power Plants......Page 325
Other Applications......Page 326
The Thermodynamics of Fuel Cells......Page 327
Heat of Combustion......Page 328
Free Energy......Page 329
Efficiency of Reversible Fuel Cells......Page 333
Effects of Pressure and Temperature on the Enthalpy and Free Energy Changes of a Reaction......Page 334
Efficiency of Practical Fuel Cells......Page 345
V-I Characteristics of Fuel Cells......Page 347
Reaction Kinetics......Page 356
The Butler--Volmer Equation......Page 361
Transport Losses......Page 366
Heat Dissipation by Fuel Cells......Page 368
Generalities......Page 415
Historical......Page 417
Metal--Water Hydrogen Production......Page 418
Large-scale Hydrogen Production......Page 420
Hydrogen Purification......Page 424
Compact Fuel Processors......Page 427
Introduction......Page 432
Electrolyzer Configurations......Page 433
Efficiency of Electrolyzers......Page 435
Concentration-Differential Electrolyzers......Page 438
Electrolytic Hydrogen Compression......Page 440
Direct Dissociation of Water......Page 441
Chemical Dissociation of Water......Page 447
Generalities......Page 449
Solar Photolysis......Page 451
Photobiologic Hydrogen Production......Page 454
11 Hydrogen Storage......Page 464
Compressed Gas......Page 466
Cryogenic Hydrogen......Page 468
Storage of Hydrogen by Adsorption......Page 470
Generalities......Page 471
Hydrogen Carriers......Page 472
Water Plus a Reducing Substance......Page 473
Metal HydridesIt is important to distinguish the noun ``hydrate'' from the noun ``hydride.'' Hydrate describes a combination of an element or a radical with water, while hydride describes the combination with hydrogen. ``To hydrate'' is the action of creating a hydrate. The Oxford English Dictionary does not list the verb ``to hydride,'' which we will use in this chapter to indicate the action of creating a hydride.......Page 474
Hydride Hydrogen Compressors......Page 489
Hydride Heat Pumps......Page 494
The Nature of the Solar Radiation......Page 516
Generalities......Page 519
Insolation on a Stationary Surface......Page 522
Horizontal Surfaces......Page 525
Solar Architecture......Page 526
Evacuated Tubes......Page 529
Concentrators......Page 530
High-Temperature Solar Heat Engine......Page 533
Solar Tower......Page 535
Solar Ponds......Page 536
Orbital Obliquity......Page 553
The Composition of Biomass......Page 564
A Little Bit of Organic Chemistry......Page 565
Biomass as Fuel......Page 587
Wood Gasifiers......Page 588
Ethanol......Page 589
Dissociated Alcohols......Page 595
Anaerobic Digestion......Page 596
Photosynthesis......Page 603
Introduction......Page 619
Theoretical Efficiency......Page 625
Carrier Multiplication......Page 633
Cascaded Cells......Page 634
Holographic Concentrators......Page 638
Thermophotovoltaic Cells......Page 639
The Ideal and the Practical......Page 644
Solid-State Junction Photodiode......Page 645
The Reverse Saturation Current......Page 665
Practical Efficiency......Page 668
Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs)......Page 669
Organic Photovoltaic Cells (OPC)......Page 675
Solar-Power Satellite......Page 684
Beam from Space......Page 686
Solar Energy to DC Conversion......Page 687
Microwave Generation......Page 688
Radiation System......Page 689
Attitude and Orbital Control......Page 690
Future of Space Solar Power Projects......Page 691
History......Page 715
Drag-Type Wind Turbines......Page 719
Lift-Type Wind Turbines......Page 721
Magnus Effect Wind Machines......Page 722
Measuring the Wind......Page 723
Availability of Wind Energy......Page 727
Wind Turbine Characteristics......Page 728
Flux......Page 730
Wind Pressure......Page 731
Available Power (Betz Limit)......Page 733
Efficiency of a Wind Turbine......Page 737
Airfoils......Page 740
Reynolds Number......Page 743
Aspect Ratio......Page 746
Horizontal Axis Turbines (propeller type)......Page 748
Vertical Axis Turbines......Page 754
Magnus Effect......Page 768
About Ocean Waves......Page 790
Wave Energy Converters......Page 793
Tidal Energy......Page 799
Energy from Currents......Page 801
Marine Current Turbine System......Page 802
Salination Energy......Page 807
Osmosis......Page 811