Fundamentals of Microelectronics

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 3
Copyright Page......Page 4
Dedication......Page 5
About the Author......Page 6
Preface......Page 7
Acknowledgments......Page 9
Contents......Page 21
1.1 Electronics versus Microelectronics......Page 27
1.2.1 Cellular Telephone......Page 28
1.2.2 Digital Camera......Page 31
1.2.3 Analog Versus Digital......Page 33
1.3.1 Analog and Digital Signals......Page 34
1.3.2 Analog Circuits......Page 36
1.3.3 Digital Circuits......Page 37
1.3.4 Basic Circuit Theorems......Page 38
1.4 Chapter Summary......Page 46
CHAPTER 2 BASIC PHYSICS OF SEMICONDUCTORS......Page 47
2.1.1 Charge Carriers in Solids......Page 48
2.1.2 Modification of Carrier Densities......Page 51
2.1.3 Transport of Carriers......Page 54
2.2 pn Junction......Page 61
2.2.1 pn Junction in Equilibrium......Page 62
2.2.2 pn Junction Under Reverse Bias......Page 67
2.2.3 pn Junction Under Forward Bias......Page 71
2.2.4 I/V Characteristics......Page 74
2.3 Reverse Breakdown......Page 79
2.4 Chapter Summary......Page 80
Problems......Page 81
SPICE Problems......Page 84
3.1.1 Initial Thoughts......Page 85
3.1.2 Ideal Diode......Page 87
3.1.3 Application Examples......Page 91
3.2 pn Junction as a Diode......Page 96
3.3 Additional Examples......Page 98
3.4 Large-Signal and Small-Signal Operation......Page 103
3.5.1 Half-Wave and Full-Wave Rectifiers......Page 112
3.5.2 Voltage Regulation......Page 125
3.5.3 Limiting Circuits......Page 127
3.5.4 Voltage Doublers......Page 131
3.5.5 Diodes as Level Shifters and Switches......Page 136
3.6 Chapter Summary......Page 138
Problems......Page 139
SPICE Problems......Page 146
4.1 General Considerations......Page 148
4.2 Structure of Bipolar Transistor......Page 150
4.3 Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Active Mode......Page 151
4.3.1 Collector Current......Page 154
4.3.2 Base and Emitter Currents......Page 157
4.4.1 Large-Signal Model......Page 159
4.4.2 I/V Characteristics......Page 161
4.4.3 Concept of Transconductance......Page 163
4.4.4 Small-Signal Model......Page 165
4.4.5 Early Effect......Page 170
4.5 Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Saturation Mode......Page 176
4.6 The PNP Transistor......Page 179
4.6.2 Large-Signal Model......Page 180
4.6.3 Small-Signal Model......Page 183
4.7 Chapter Summary......Page 186
Problems......Page 187
SPICE Problems......Page 194
5.1 General Considerations......Page 196
5.1.1 Input and Output Impedances......Page 197
5.1.3 DC and Small-Signal Analysis......Page 201
5.2 Operating Point Analysis and Design......Page 203
5.2.1 Simple Biasing......Page 204
5.2.2 Resistive Divider Biasing......Page 207
5.2.3 Biasing with Emitter Degeneration......Page 210
5.2.4 Self-Biased Stage......Page 214
5.2.5 Biasing of PNP Transistors......Page 217
5.3 Bipolar Amplifier Topologies......Page 221
5.3.1 Common-Emitter Topology......Page 222
5.3.2 Common-Base Topology......Page 249
5.3.3 Emitter Follower......Page 265
5.4 Summary and Additional Examples......Page 273
Problems......Page 279
SPICE Problems......Page 294
6.1 Structure of MOSFET......Page 296
6.2.1 Qualitative Analysis......Page 299
6.2.2 Derivation of I-V Characteristics......Page 305
6.2.3 Channel-Length Modulation......Page 314
6.2.4 MOS Transconductance......Page 316
6.2.6 Other Second-Order Effects......Page 318
6.3.1 Large-Signal Model......Page 319
6.3.2 Small-Signal Model......Page 321
6.4 PMOS Transistor......Page 322
6.5 CMOS Technology......Page 324
6.7 Chapter Summary......Page 325
Problems......Page 326
SPICE Problems......Page 333
7.1.2 Biasing......Page 335
7.1.3 Realization of Current Sources......Page 339
7.2.1 CS Core......Page 340
7.2.2 CS Stage with Current-Source Load......Page 343
7.2.3 CS Stage with Diode-Connected Load......Page 344
7.2.4 CS Stage with Degeneration......Page 346
7.2.5 CS Core with Biasing......Page 349
7.3 Common-Gate Stage......Page 351
7.3.1 CG Stage with Biasing......Page 356
7.4 Source Follower......Page 357
7.4.1 Source Follower Core......Page 358
7.4.2 Source Follower with Biasing......Page 360
7.5 Summary and Additional Examples......Page 362
Problems......Page 366
SPICE Problems......Page 378
CHAPTER 8 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER AS A BLACK BOX......Page 380
8.1 General Considerations......Page 381
8.2.1 Noninverting Amplifier......Page 383
8.2.2 Inverting Amplifier......Page 385
8.2.3 Integrator and Differentiator......Page 388
8.2.4 Voltage Adder......Page 395
8.3.1 Precision Rectifier......Page 396
8.3.2 Logarithmic Amplifier......Page 397
8.3.3 Square-Root Amplifier......Page 398
8.4.1 DC Offsets......Page 399
8.4.2 Input Bias Current......Page 402
8.4.3 Speed Limitations......Page 405
8.4.4 Finite Input and Output Impedances......Page 410
8.5 Design Examples......Page 411
8.6 Chapter Summary......Page 413
Problems......Page 414
SPICE Problems......Page 420
9.1.1 Cascode as a Current Source......Page 421
9.1.2 Cascode as an Amplifier......Page 428
9.2.1 Initial Thoughts......Page 437
9.2.2 Bipolar Current Mirror......Page 438
9.2.3 MOS Current Mirror......Page 447
9.3 Chapter Summary......Page 450
Problems......Page 451
SPICE Problems......Page 461
10.1.1 Initial Thoughts......Page 463
10.1.2 Differential Signals......Page 465
10.2.1 Qualitative Analysis......Page 468
10.2.2 Large-Signal Analysis......Page 474
10.2.3 Small-Signal Analysis......Page 479
10.3 MOS Differential Pair......Page 484
10.3.1 Qualitative Analysis......Page 485
10.3.2 Large-Signal Analysis......Page 489
10.3.3 Small-Signal Analysis......Page 493
10.4 Cascode Differential Amplifiers......Page 497
10.5 Common-Mode Rejection......Page 501
10.6 Differential Pair with Active Load......Page 505
10.6.1 Qualitative Analysis......Page 506
10.6.2 Quantitative Analysis......Page 508
10.7 Chapter Summary......Page 513
Problems......Page 514
SPICE Problems......Page 526
11.1.1 General Considerations......Page 528
11.1.2 Relationship Between Transfer Function and Frequency Response......Page 531
11.1.3 Bode's Rules......Page 534
11.1.4 Association of Poles with Nodes......Page 535
11.1.5 Miller's Theorem......Page 537
11.1.6 General Frequency Response......Page 540
11.2.1 High-Frequency Model of Bipolar Transistor......Page 543
11.2.2 High-Frequency Model of MOSFET......Page 545
11.2.3 Transit Frequency......Page 546
11.3 Analysis Procedure......Page 548
11.4.1 Low-Frequency Response......Page 549
11.4.3 Use of Miller's Theorem......Page 550
11.4.4 Direct Analysis......Page 553
11.4.5 Input Impedance......Page 556
11.5.2 High-Frequency Response......Page 558
11.6 Frequency Response of Followers......Page 561
11.6.1 Input and Output Impedances......Page 564
11.7 Frequency Response of Cascode Stage......Page 567
11.7.1 Input and Output Impedances......Page 571
11.8 Frequency Response of Differential Pairs......Page 572
11.8.1 Common-Mode Frequency Response......Page 574
11.9 Additional Examples......Page 575
11.10 Chapter Summary......Page 579
Problems......Page 580
SPICE Problems......Page 588
12.1 General Considerations......Page 589
12.1.1 Loop Gain......Page 592
12.2.1 Gain Desensitization......Page 594
12.2.2 Bandwidth Extension......Page 595
12.2.3 Modification of I/O Impedances......Page 597
12.2.4 Linearity Improvement......Page 601
12.3.1 Simple Amplifier Models......Page 602
12.3.2 Examples of Amplifier Types......Page 603
12.4 Sense and Return Techniques......Page 605
12.5 Polarity of Feedback......Page 608
12.6 Feedback Topologies......Page 610
12.6.1 Voltage-Voltage Feedback......Page 611
12.6.2 Voltage-Current Feedback......Page 615
12.6.3 Current-Voltage Feedback......Page 618
12.6.4 Current-Current Feedback......Page 623
12.7 Effect of Nonideal I/O Impedances......Page 626
12.7.1 Inclusion of I/O Effects......Page 627
12.8 Stability in Feedback Systems......Page 639
12.8.1 Review of Bode's Rules......Page 640
12.8.2 Problem of Instability......Page 641
12.8.3 Stability Condition......Page 644
12.8.4 Phase Margin......Page 647
12.8.5 Frequency Compensation......Page 649
12.8.6 Miller Compensation......Page 652
12.9 Chapter Summary......Page 653
Problems......Page 654
SPICE Problems......Page 665
13.1 General Considerations......Page 667
13.2 Ring Oscillators......Page 670
13.3.1 Parallel LC Tanks......Page 674
13.3.2 Cross-Coupled Oscillator......Page 678
13.3.3 Colpitts Oscillator......Page 680
13.4 Phase Shift Oscillator......Page 683
13.5 Wien-Bridge Oscillator......Page 686
13.6.1 Crystal Model......Page 687
13.6.2 Negative-Resistance Circuit......Page 689
13.6.3 Crystal Oscillator Implementation......Page 690
Problems......Page 693
SPICE Problems......Page 698
14.1 General Considerations......Page 699
14.2 Emitter Follower as Power Amplifier......Page 700
14.3 Push-Pull Stage......Page 703
14.4.1 Reduction of Crossover Distortion......Page 706
14.4.2 Addition of CE Stage......Page 710
14.5.1 Biasing Issues......Page 713
14.5.2 Omission of PNP Power Transistor......Page 714
14.5.3 High-Fidelity Design......Page 717
14.7 Heat Dissipation......Page 718
14.7.1 Emitter Follower Power Rating......Page 719
14.7.2 Push-Pull Stage Power Rating......Page 720
14.7.3 Thermal Runaway......Page 722
14.8.1 Efficiency of Emitter Follower......Page 723
14.8.2 Efficiency of Push-Pull Stage......Page 724
14.9 Power Amplifier Classes......Page 725
14.10 Chapter Summary......Page 726
Problems......Page 727
SPICE Problems......Page 731
15.1 General Considerations......Page 733
15.1.1 Filter Characteristics......Page 734
15.1.2 Classification of Filters......Page 735
15.1.3 Filter Transfer Function......Page 738
15.1.4 Problem of Sensitivity......Page 742
15.2 First-Order Filters......Page 743
15.3.1 Special Cases......Page 746
15.3.2 RLC Realizations......Page 750
15.4.1 Sallen and Key Filter......Page 755
15.4.2 Integrator-Based Biquads......Page 761
15.4.3 Biquads Using Simulated Inductors......Page 764
15.5 Approximation of Filter Response......Page 769
15.5.1 Butterworth Response......Page 770
15.5.2 Chebyshev Response......Page 774
15.6 Chapter Summary......Page 779
Problems......Page 780
SPICE Problems......Page 784
16.1 General Considerations......Page 786
16.1.1 Static Characterization of Gates......Page 787
16.1.2 Dynamic Characterization of Gates......Page 794
16.1.3 Power-Speed Trade-Off......Page 797
16.2.1 Initial Thoughts......Page 799
16.2.2 Voltage Transfer Characteristic......Page 801
16.2.3 Dynamic Characteristics......Page 807
16.2.4 Power Dissipation......Page 812
16.3.1 NOR Gate......Page 816
16.3.2 NAND Gate......Page 819
16.4 Chapter Summary......Page 820
Problems......Page 821
SPICE Problems......Page 826
17.1 General Considerations......Page 827
17.1.1 Input and Output Impedances......Page 828
17.1.2 Biasing......Page 832
17.1.3 DC and Small-Signal Analysis......Page 833
17.2 Operating Point Analysis and Design......Page 834
17.2.1 Simple Biasing......Page 836
17.2.2 Biasing with Source Degeneration......Page 838
17.2.3 Self-Biased Stage......Page 841
17.2.4 Biasing of PMOS Transistors......Page 842
17.2.5 Realization of Current Sources......Page 843
17.3 CMOS Amplifier Topologies......Page 844
17.4 Common-Source Topology......Page 845
17.4.1 CS Stage with Current-Source Load......Page 850
17.4.2 CS Stage with Diode-Connected Load......Page 851
17.4.3 CS Stage with Source Degeneration......Page 852
17.4.4 Common-Gate Topology......Page 864
17.4.5 Source Follower......Page 875
17.5 Additional Examples......Page 881
17.6 Chapter Summary......Page 885
Problems......Page 886
SPICE Problems......Page 897
Appendix A INTRODUCTION TO SPICE......Page 899
Index......Page 919