Functional Neuroradiology: Principles and Clinical Applications

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Contributors
Part I: Diffusion and Perfusion Imaging: Physical Principles
	1: Physical Principles of Diffusion Imaging
		Introduction
		Brownian Motion and Molecular Diffusion
		Diffusion Encoding and the Stejskal-Tanner Equation
		Diffusion Anisotropy
		Calculating the ADC
		Isotropic DWI and Trace ADC
		DWI of the Normal Brain
		Current DWI Techniques
		Conclusion
		References
	2: Physical Principles of Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced and Dynamic Susceptibility Contrast MRI
		Introduction
		T1-Weighted Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced MRI
			DCE-MRI Acquisition
			DCE-MRI Data Analysis
			DCE Pharmacokinetic Modeling
			Standardization Efforts and Variability of DCE-MRI
		T2/T2*-Weighted Dynamic Susceptibility Contrast MRI
			DSC-MRI Acquisition
			DSC-MRI Data Analysis
			Arterial Input Function
			Absolute Quantification
			Leakage Effects of GBCAs
			Standardization Efforts and Variability of DSC-MRI
		Conclusion
		References
	3: Physical Principles of Non-gadolinium Perfusion Technique (Arterial Spin Labeling)
		Introduction
		Methodology
			Spin Preparation Schemes
				PASL
				CASL
				PCASL
				VS-ASL
			Imaging Acquisition Schemes
			CBF Quantification
		Other ASL Considerations
			Crusher Gradients
			Post-Labeling Delay Time
			Higher Field Strength Magnets
			Coils
			Post-Processing Filters
			Vascular Territory Mapping
		Conclusions
		References
Part II: Diffusion and Perfusion Imaging: Clinical Applications
	4: Clinical Applications of Diffusion
		Introduction
		Basic Mechanisms Underlying Diffusion Changes in Pathologic States
		Basic Principles of Diffusion-Weighted Imaging Map Interpretation
		Diffusion-Weighted Imaging of Ischemic Arterial Infarcts
			Diffusion Characteristics of Ischemic Lesions at Different Stages
			Reliability and Pitfalls of Diffusion-Weighted Imaging in Identification of Acute Ischemic Lesions
			Reversibility of DWI Positive Lesions in Ischemic Stroke and the Use of DWI for Determination of Infarct Core
			Use of DWI for Predicting Hemorrhagic Transformation of Ischemic Infarcts
			Correlation of DWI Lesion Volume with Clinical Outcome
			Thrombolysis/Thrombectomy and DWI/FLAIR and DWI/T2W Mismatch
			Lesion Segmentation and Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Stroke
		Transient Ischemic Attacks
		Venous Infarctions and Other Vascular Vasogenic Edema Syndromes
			Venous Infarctions
			Posterior Reversible Encephalopathy Syndrome (PRES)
			Hyperperfusion Syndrome Following Carotid Endarterectomy
		Transient Global Amnesia
		Hemiplegic Migraine
		SEIZURES
		Metabolic, Toxic, and Drug-Induced Encephalopathies
			Hypoglycemia
			Heroin Inhalation Leukoencephalopathy (HIL)
			Metronidazole-Induced Encephalopathy
			Methotrexate-Induced Leukoencephalopathy
			Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
			Osmotic Myelinolysis Syndromes
			Other Syndromes Associated with Alcoholism
			Other Drugs and Metabolic Conditions Associated with Restricted Diffusion
		Inflammatory Demyelinating Lesions
		Cerebral Infections
			Abscesses
			Meningitis
			Encephalitis
			Creutzfeldt-Jacob Disease
		Cerebral Neoplasms
			Tumor Grading, Gliomas, and Intracranial Metastases
			Evaluation of Treatment Response and Distinguishing Pseudoresponse and Pseudoprogression
			Lymphoma
			Extra-Axial Masses
		Traumatic Brain Injury
		Head and Neck Applications
			Characterization of Benign Versus Malignant Head and Neck Lesions
			Prediction and Monitoring of Treatment Response
			Other Head and Neck Applications
		Spine Applications
		Conclusion: Future Applications of Diffusion Imaging in the Brain
		References
	5: Clinical Applications of MR Perfusion Imaging
		Introduction
		Principles
			Dynamic Susceptibility Contrast Perfusion MRI
			Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced Perfusion MRI
			Arterial Spin Labeled Perfusion MRI
		Clinical Applications
			Cerebrovascular Disorders
				Acute Ischemia
					MR Perfusion and Acute Ischemic Syndrome
					Luxury Perfusion and Reperfusion Injury
				Subacute and Chronic Ischemia
					Perfusion Patterns in Stenotic-Occlusive Disease
					Cerebrovascular Reserve (CVR)
					Territorial Mapping and Collateral Evaluation in Stenotic-Occlusive Disease
					Moyamoya
					Interventions
					Hyperperfusion
					Spasm
					AVM
			Neoplastic Disorders
				Diagnosis and Grading
					Differentiation of Neoplastic from Non-neoplastic Lesions
					Intra-Axial Neoplasms
					ASL Perfusion Imaging
					Extent of Infiltration: Glioma Versus Metastasis Versus Lymphoma
					Extra-Axial Neoplasms
				Pre-treatment Planning
					Biopsy Guidance
					Prognosis
					Radiogenomics
				Post-Treatment Planning
					Response to Therapy and Recurrence/Progression
					Post-Treatment Imaging of Brain Tumors: Tumor Recurrence, Pseudoprogression and Radiation Necrosis
					Pseudoresponse
		Conclusion
		References
	6: Clinical Application of Perfusion and Diffusion in Stroke
		Introduction
		Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			FLAIR, GRE, and SWI
			Diffusion-Weighted Imaging (DWI)
			Magnetic Resonance Angiography (MRA)
			Perfusion-Weighted Magnetic Resonance Imaging (PWI)
			Arterial Spin Labeling (ASL)
		Computed Tomography Imaging
			CT Angiography (CTA)
			CT Perfusion (PCT)
		Revascularization Trials
		Hemorrhagic Stroke
		Conclusion
		References
	7: Clinical Applications of Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced (DCE) Permeability Imaging
		Introduction
		T2*-Weighted DSC MRI and T1-Weighted DCE MRI (Combined Approach)
		Permeability in Gliomas
			Permeability and Glioma Biology and Grade
			Permeability for Guiding Stereotactic Biopsy and Radiosurgery
		Therapeutic Monitoring
			Pseudoprogression
			Perfusion and Permeability Monitoring of Novel Antiangiogenic Agents
		Tumor and Nontumoral Lesions
		Extra-Axial Neoplasms (Meningioma, Schwannoma)
		Challenges and Future Perspectives
		Conclusion
		References
	8: CNS Tumor Surveillance and Functional MR Perfusion Imaging
		Introduction
		Differentiating Gliomas from Non-neoplastic Tumefactive Lesions
		Differentiating Gliomas from Metastasis and Lymphoma
		World Health Organization Glioma Classification
			Assessment of Tumor Grade
			Assessment of IDH1/2 Mutation Status
			Assessment of Copy Number Variation (CNV)
			Assessment of CDKN2A/B Homozygous Deletion (p16 Loss)
			Assessment of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) Anomalies
			Assessment of MGMT Methylation
			Assessment of Low-Grade Glioma Dedifferentiation
		Biopsy Guidance
		Predicting Outcome and Treatment Response
			Assessment of Treatment Response
			Pseudoprogression
			Radiation Necrosis
			Pseudoresponse
		Limitations
		References
Part III: Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy and Chemical Exchange Saturation Transfer Imaging
	9: Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy: Physical Principles
		Introduction
		Basic Principles of In Vivo MR Spectroscopy
			Chemical Shift and J-Coupling
			Contrast Mechanism: Echo Time (TE) and Repetition Time (TR)
		Main Metabolites of the 1H In Vivo Proton Spectrum
			N-Acetyl-Aspartate (NAA) and N-Acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG)
			Creatine (Cr)
			Choline (Cho)
			Myo-Inositol (mI)
			Glutamate (Glu) and Glutamine (Gln)
			Lactate (Lac)
			Lipids and Macromolecules (LipMM)
			Other Metabolites Detectable with 1H MRS
			Alanine (Ala)
			Aspartate (Asp)
			γ(gamma)-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
			Glucose (Glc)
			Glutathione (GSH)
			Glycine (Glyc)
			Scyllo-Inositol (sI)
			Taurine
			Additional Peaks
		Data Acquisition
			Acquisition Methods
				2D or 3D Chemical Shift Imaging (CSI)
				Editing Techniques
			Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) Considerations
			Selecting the Region of Interest (ROI)
			When to Use What Method?
			How to Acquire Good-Quality Spectra
			Processing of MR Spectra
			Documentation and Storage
			Quantitation
			Safety
			MR Spectroscopy at 3 T
		Conclusion
		References
	10: Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy: Clinical Applications
		Introduction
		In Vivo 1H MRS
			Magnetic Resonance Spectrum
				Chemical Shift
				Signal Intensities
				Spin–Spin Coupling
				Effect of the Choice of Acquisition Parameters on Appearance of the Spectra
			1H MRS Localization Techniques
				Single-Voxel MRS
				MR Spectroscopic Imaging
			Acquisition of MR Spectra
			Assessment of Metabolite Concentrations
			Neurochemical Profile of the Brain Tissue
			Applications of In-Vivo 1H MRS in Neuroradiology
				Age-Related and Regional Differences in Metabolite Concentrations
				Age-Related Differences
				Regional, Sex-Related and Hemispheric Differences in 1H MR Spectra
		Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy
		Stroke
		Neurodegenerative Diseases
			Dementias
			Huntington’s Disease
			Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
		Infectious Diseases
			Bacterial Infections
			Viral Infections
		Demyelinating Disorders
			Multiple Sclerosis
			Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis
		Epilepsy
		Metabolic Disorders
			Creatine and NAA Deficiency Syndromes
			Phenylketonuria
			Succinate Dehydrogenase Deficiency
			Maple Syrup Urine Disease
			Nonketotic Hyperglycinemia
			Canavan Disease
		Mitochondrial Disorders
		Neurodegenerative White Matter Disorders
		Hepatic Encephalopathy
		Brain Tumors
			Differentiation Between Tumors and Non-neoplastic Lesions
			Classification of Brain Tumors
				Tumor Grading
				Meningiomas
				Solitary Metastases
				IDH Mutation and 2-HG
			Post-Treatment Evaluation
		Conclusion
		References
	11: Chemical Exchange Saturation Transfer (CEST) Imaging
		Introduction to Chemical Exchange Saturation Transfer (CEST) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
		Neurooncological Applications of CEST MRI
			Endogenous CEST Contrasts in Neurooncological Applications
				Assessment of Histopathologic Tumor Subtypes with CEST
				Therapy Response Assessment, Prognostication, and Outcome Prediction with CEST
			Exogenous CEST Contrasts: Glucose-Enhanced MRI of Brain Tumors
			pH-Sensitive CEST MRI in Neurooncological Applications
		Assessment of Ischemic and Hemorrhagic Stroke Using CEST MRI
			pH-Sensitive APT Imaging of Acute Ischemic and Hemorrhagic Stroke
				Intracerebral Hemorrhage
		CEST MRI of Neurodegenerative Diseases
			Alzheimer’s Disease
			Parkinson’s Disease
			Multiple Sclerosis
		Imaging of Other Neurological Disorders Using Glutamate-Sensitive CEST (GluCEST) MRI
			Epilepsy
			Encephalitis
		Conclusion
		References
Part IV: Multimodal Functional Neuroradiology
	12: Functional Imaging-Based Diagnostic Strategy: Intra-axial Brain Masses
		Introduction
		Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
			Metabolic Markers for Intra-axial Brain Tumors
			Differential Diagnosis, Preoperative Tumor Grading, and Biopsy Guidance
			Therapeutic Monitoring
		Diffusion Imaging
			Differential Diagnosis, Preoperative Tumor Grading, and Biopsy Guidance
			Therapeutic Monitoring and Prognostication
		Perfusion Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Role of Perfusion Imaging in Preoperative Tumor Grading and Biopsy Guidance
			Therapeutic Monitoring and Prognostication
		Intra-axial Brain Mass Diagnostic Strategy
			High-Grade Gliomas
			Low-Grade Gliomas
			Primary Central Nervous System Lymphoma
			Brain Metastases
			Tumefactive Demyelinating Lesions
			Encephalitis
			Brain Abscesses
		Pitfalls and Special Circumstances
			Pediatric Brain Tumors
		Post-treatment Imaging
		Current Challenges and Future Directions
		References
	13: Functional Neuroimaging of Epilepsy
		Introduction
		Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
			Focal Cortical Dysplasia
			Tuberous Sclerosis Complex
			Mesial Temporal Sclerosis
			Epileptogenic Tumors
		Magnetic Source Imaging or Magnetoencephalography
			Focal Cortical Dysplasia
			Tuberous Sclerosis Complex
		Diffusion Tensor Imaging
			Mesial Temporal Sclerosis
			Focal Cortical Dysplasia
		Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) in Epilepsy
			Ictal SPECT: Practical Issues
			Ictal and Interictal SPECT
			Interictal SPECT Versus Interictal PET
		Invasive Functional Assessment: Depth Electrode and Grid Electrode Placement
		Conclusion
		References
	14: Functional Neuroradiology of Traumatic Brain Injury
		Introduction
		Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)
		Proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (1H-MRS)
		Brain Perfusion
		Resting-State Functional MRI
		Conclusion
		References
	15: Functional Neuroradiology of Multiple Sclerosis: Non-BOLD Techniques
		Introduction
		Diffusion-Weighted Imaging/Diffusion Tensor Imaging
			Brain
			Spine
		Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Imaging
		Perfusion-Weighted Imaging
			Dynamic Susceptibility Contrast
			Dynamic Contrast Enhanced
			Arterial Spin Labeling
		Susceptibility-Weighted Imaging
		Evolving Techniques
			Magnetization Transfer Imaging (MTI)
			New Markers of Neuroinflammation
				Leptomeningeal Enhancement and New MRI Contrast Agents
				PET Markers of Neuroinflammation
				CEST-APT
		References
			DWI
			MRS
			PWI
			SWI
			MTR
			New Markers of Neuroinflammation
	16: Functional Neuroradiology of Psychiatric Diseases
		Introduction
		Autism
		Schizophrenia
		Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
		Mood Disorders
		Post-traumatic Stress Disorder
		Conclusion
		References
	17: Neuroimaging of Pain
		Introduction
			Clinical Utility of Functional Neuroimaging
			The Specific Problem of Clinical Pain Assessment
			Classifications of Neuroimaging
		Applying Neroimaging to Clinical Conditions
			Molecular Measurement by MR Spectroscopy
			Neuroimaging Studies of Pain Utilizing MR Spectroscopy (MRS)
				Chronic Low Back Pain
				Complex Regional Pain Syndrome Type I (CRPS Type I)
				Neuropathic Pain
			Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS)
				Temporomandibular Disorders and Orofacial Pain
				Fibromyalgia (FM)
				Temporomandibular Disorder (TMD)
				Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)
				Vulvodynia (VVS)
				Evoked Pain in Healthy Control Subjects
			Basal Cerebral Blood Flow by PET, SPECT, and Resting State fMRI (rs-fMRI)
				Fibromyalgia (FM)
				Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS)
			Basal Cerebral Blood Flow by Arterial Spin Labeling (ASL)
				Evoked Pain in Healthy Control Subjects
				Chronic Low Back Pain
			PET Evaluation of Glucose Metabolism and Ligand Binding
				Fibromyalgia (FM)
				Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)
				Temporomandibular Disorder (TMD)
				Vulvodynia (VVS)
			Anatomic Measurements of Gray and White Matter by Voxel-Based Morphometry (VBM)
				Voxel-Based Gray Matter Morphometry (VBM) in Fibromyalgia (FM)
				Evaluation of Gray Matter in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS)
			Evaluation of Gray Matter in IBS
				Evaluation of Gray Matter in Temporomandibular Disorder (TMD)
			Diffusion-Weighted Imaging (DWI)
			Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)
			DTW and DTI Applications to White Matter Evaluation in Pain
				Neuropathic Pain
				Temporomandibular Disorder (TMD)
				Fibromyalgia (FM)
				White Matter Perfusion Using Contrast-Based and ASL Imaging in Fibromyalgia (FM)
				Evaluation of White Matter in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS)
				Evaluation of White Matter in IBS
			Evaluation of Gray Matter in VVS
			Anatomical Measures of Gray and White Matter
		Conclusion: Future Considerations
		References
	18: Quantitative and Physiological Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Glioma
		Introduction
		Characterization Of Glioma
			Histopathological and Molecular Characterization
			IDH1 and IDH2 Mutations
			1p/19q Codeletion
			ATRX and TP53 Mutations
			O-6-Methylguanine-DNA Methyltransferase (MGMT) Promoter Methylation Status
		Physiological and Ultrastructural MRI Techniques for Glioma Characterization
			Diffusion MRI
			Perfusion MRI
			Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
			MRI to Detect MGMT Promoter Methylation
		Imaging Biomarkers of Malignant Transformation and Progression
			Risk Factors
			Contrast Enhancement on Conventional MRI
			Tumor Volume and Growth Kinetics
			Quantitative Imaging Biomarkers
		Advanced MRI in Treatment Planning
		Evaluation of Therapeutic Response
			MRI Biomarkers of Early Treatment Response
			Quantitative and Physiological Imaging to Discriminate Progression Versus “Treatment Effect”
				Diffusion Imaging to Discriminate Between PD and PsP
				Diffusion MRI to Differentiate PD from PsP
				Perfusion Imaging as a Discriminator of PD from PsP
				MRS as a Discriminator Between PD and PsP
			Antiangiogenic Therapy and Non-enhancing Tumor
			Immunotherapy Response Assessment
		Impression and Conclusions
		References
Part V: BOLD Functional MRI: Physical Principles
	19: Principles of BOLD Functional MRI
		Introduction
		Physiological Changes
		Functional Imaging Contrasts
			T1-Weighted Perfusion fMRI
			CBV-Weighted fMRI
			T2* and T2-Weighted BOLD fMRI
				Intravascular BOLD Component
				Extravascular BOLD Component
				Spin-Echo Versus Gradient-Echo BOLD
			BOLD Versus CBF
		Contrast-to-Noise Ratio and Temporal Resolution
		Conclusion
		References
	20: fMRI Scanning Methods
		Introduction
		Magnetic Resonance Physics
		Acquisition Schemes
			Spin Echo
			Gradient Echo
			Echo Planar Imaging
		Applications
			BOLD
				Optimization of BOLD MRI
				Z-Shim EPI
			Arterial Spin Labeling
			Simultaneous Multislice (SMS) or Multiband Imaging
			Multicontrast EPI (EPIMix)
		Conclusion
		References
	21: Experimental Design and Data Analysis for fMRI
		Introduction
		Basic Types of Neuroimaging Inference
			Forward Inference
			Reverse Inference
			Connectivity
		Manipulation of the Cognitive Process
		Properties of the BOLD fMRI System That Impact Experimental Design
		Different Temporal Structures of BOLD fMRI Experiments
		Data Preprocessing
			Distortion Correction
			Slice Acquisition Correction
			Motion Correction
			Spatial Normalization
			Spatial Smoothing
		Statistical Analysis
		Conclusion
		References
	22: Challenges in fMRI and Its Limitations
		Introduction
		MR Physics-Based Limitations in fMRI
			Physics-Based Limitations on Spatial Resolution
			SNR and Field Strength
			Static Field Inhomogeneities
			The Effect of Acquisition TR
		Physiological Factors Influencing Spatial Resolution
			Physiological-Based Limitations/Constraints in fMRI
			Blood Oxygenation Changes and Localization
			Functional Spatial Limitations
			Brain System Dependent Limitations
			The Draining Vein Problem
			The Initial Dip
			Subject Movement
			Other Physiological Changes Associated with Brain Activation
			Threshold Effects and Localization
			Temporal Resolution of the BOLD Response
			Pulse Sequences for fMRI: Spatial/Temporal Resolution
			Imaging Approaches to Other Physiological Measurements
			Arterial Spin Labeling
		Sensitivity
		Conclusion
		References
	23: Neurovascular Uncoupling in Functional MRI
		Definition of Terms
		Introduction
		Control of Cerebral Blood Flow
			Neurovascular Coupling and Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
			Assessing the Cerebrovascular Autoregulatory Reserve by Performing Cerebrovascular Reactivity Measurements
			Exhausted Cerebrovascular Reserve Associated with Steal Physiology
			The Consequences of Exhausted Cerebrovascular Reserve Associated with Steal Physiology on Neuronal Network Mapping Using Task-Based BOLD MRI and BOLD-CVR
		Distinguishing Hemodynamics from Embolic Neurological Events
		The Long-Term Consequences of Chronic Steal Physiology on the Brain: “The Neurovascular Uncoupling Syndrome”
		Conclusion
		References
	24: Functional Connectivity MR Imaging
		Introduction
		Standard Methods
			Image Acquisition
		Seed-to-Whole Brain Connectivity Maps
			Preprocessing
				Removal of Physiologic Noise
				Temporal Filtering
				Removal of Time Courses Believed to Be Associated with Noise Sources
			Seed Region Definition
				Anatomically Defined or Atlas-Based Seed Regions
				Task-Based Functionally Defined Seed Regions
			Postprocessing
		Direct Correlation of Regional Time Courses (Seed-to-Seed)
		Data-Driven Approaches
			Independent Components Analysis
			Other Data-Driven Methods for Parcellation of the Brain
		Assessment of Network Properties After Node Identification
		Relating Function to Connectivity
		Clinical Applications
		Conclusion
		References
	25: Clinical Challenges of Functional MRI
		Introduction
		Mapping Cognitive Function with Activation Versus Disruption
		Technical Considerations
			Field Strength
		Scan Sequence and Susceptibility
		Study and Task Design
			Task Selection
			Practice Effects
			Task Difficulty
			Task Choice
			Special Task Considerations
			Head Motion
			Iatrogenic Considerations
		Analysis
			Within Subject vs. Group Analysis
			Dependent Measures
			Reproducibility
			Conjunction Analysis
		Applying fMRI to Clinical Planning
			Significance of Signal Localization
			Reliability of Signal Adjacent to Pathology
			Value of Resting-State fMRI (rs-fMRI)
		Relationship to Outcomes
		Conclusion
		References
Part VI: BOLD Functional MRI: Clinical & Cognitive Applications
	26: fMRI of Language Systems: Methods and Applications
		Introduction
		Some Proposed Clinical Applications of fMRI Language Mapping
			Presurgical Applications
			Prediction of Outcome in Aphasia
			Diagnosis
			Monitoring Treatment Effects
		Language and Language Processes
		Some Common Pitfalls in Language Mapping
			Inadequate Analysis of Language Tasks
			Inadequate Control Tasks
			Lack of Behavioral Data
		Survey of Some Common Language Activation Protocols
			Language Task: Passively Listening to Words or Sentences
				Control Task: Resting
			Language Task: Passively Listening to Words or Sentences
				Control Task: Passively Listening to Nonspeech
			Language Task: Word Generation
				Control Task: Resting or Fixation
			Language Task: Word Generation
				Control Task: Reading or Repeating
			Language Task: Visual Object Naming
				Control Task: Resting or Fixation
			Language Task: Semantic Decision
				Control Task: Sensory Discrimination
			Language Task: Semantic Decision
				Control Task: Phonological or Phonetic Decision
			Language Task: Sentence or Word Reading
				Control Task: Viewing Letter Strings or Visual Nonletters
		Language Lateralization: Normative, Reliability, and Validation Studies
			Normative Studies
			Test–Retest Reliability
			Wada Comparisons
			Comparisons with Electrical Stimulation Mapping
		Outcome Prediction Studies
			Prediction of Language Outcome
			Prediction of Verbal Memory Outcome
		Illustrative Cases Using Language fMRI For Quantitative Outcome Prediction
		Conclusion
			Future Applications: Use of fMRI Language Maps in Surgical Planning
		References
	27: Functional MRI of Language and Memory in Surgical Epilepsy: fMRI Wada Test
		Introduction
		The IAT: History and Background
		Description of a Standardized IAT Protocol
		Language Mapping with fMRI as Compared to IAT
		Concordance Between fMRI and IAT Language Lateralization
		Discordance Between fMRI and IAT Language Lateralization
		fMRI Language Task Selection Considerations
		Considerations for Determination of fMRI Language Laterality
		Pediatric Language fMRI
		Prediction of Postoperative Language Outcome Using fMRI
		Case Examples of fMRI Language Activation
		fMRI Memory Paradigms as Compared to the IAT
		fMRI of Visuospatial/Nonverbal Memory
		fMRI of Verbal Memory
		Multimodality Memory fMRI Paradigms
		Using fMRI to Predict Postsurgical Memory Outcome
		Case Examples of fMRI Memory Activation
		rsfMRI for Presurgical Mapping in Epilepsy Patients
		Use of rsfMRI for Language Lateralization
		Association of rsfMRI with Postoperative Language Outcome
		Association of rsfMRI with Memory Functioning and Postoperative Memory Outcome
		rsfMRI and Multidomain Cognitive Outcomes in TLE
		rsfMRI in Pediatric Epilepsy Patients
		Summary of Findings for rsfMRI for Surgical Epilepsy and as Related to the IAT
		Reliability, Validity, and Clinical Factors Pertinent to fMRI Presurgical Mapping
		Summary and Conclusions
		References
	28: Resting State Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		Introduction
		Neuronal Organization, Activity, and Recorded Network Observations
		Visualizing Functional Networks: Blood Oxygenation Level–Dependent Imaging
		Data Acquisition
		Data Processing and Analysis
		Overview of Resting State Networks
		Resting-State fMRI in Intelligence and Individuality and Normal Cognition
		Resting-State fMRI in Development and Aging
		Resting-State fMRI in Disease
		Resting-State fMRI in Surgical Planning
		Current Status and Outlook: Can Clinical Resting State Move Beyond a “Resting” State?
		Conclusion
		References
	29: fMRI of Human Visual Pathways
		Introduction
		Functional Organization of the Human Visual System
			Retinotopic Organization
			Multiple Visual Areas and Pathways
			Functional Specialization
			Visual System White Matter Tracts and DTI
			Clinical Implications of Visual System Organization
		Clinical Applications
			Methodology
				Visual Field Mapping
				Functionally Specific Tests
				fMRI Workflow (with Details for Visual System Mapping)
					Initial Patient Assessment
					Diagnostic Imaging
					PrefMRI Assessment and Training. Peripherals Setup and Quality Assurance
					FMRI Scan Acquisition
					Acquisition Q/A
					Postprocessing
					Display/Report/Archiving
					Interpretation/Treatment Guidance
					Follow-Up
			Specific Pathologies and Issues
				Tumor Resection/Radiation
				Epilepsy Treatment
				Arterio-Venous Malformations
				Diagnosis/Interpretation of Vision Pathologies
					Sensory Loss vs. Attentional Neglect
				Agnosias and Extrastriate Visual Areas
					Cerebral Achromatopsia
				Stroke
				Complicating Factors
					Neurovascular Uncoupling (NVU)
					Tissue Distortions
		Conclusion
		References
	30: Functional MRI Studies of Memory in Aging, Mild Cognitive Impairment, and Alzheimer’s Disease
		Introduction
		Episodic Memory
			fMRI Studies of Episodic Memory
			fMRI of Episodic Encoding: The Role of the PFC
			fMRI of Episodic Encoding: The Role of the MTL
			fMRI Studies of Episodic Retrieval
			fMRI Studies of Episodic Retrieval: The Role of the PFC
			fMRI Studies of Episodic Retrieval: The Role of the MTL
			fMRI Studies of Episodic Retrieval: The Role of the Parietal Cortex
			fMRI Studies to Identify the Neural Correlates of the Component Processes of Episodic Retrieval
		Age-Related Changes in Episodic Memory
			fMRI Studies of Episodic Encoding and Retrieval in Normal Aging
		Episodic Memory in Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Conditions
			fMRI Studies of Episodic Memory in Patients with AD
			fMRI Studies of Episodic Memory in Patients with MCI
		Functional and Resting State Connectivity Associated with Episodic Memory
			fMRI Studies of Episodic Associated Connectivity in Healthy Young Adults
			fMRI Studies of Episodic Associated Connectivity in Healthy Older Adults
			fMRI Studies of Episodic Associated Connectivity in Patients with MCI and AD
			fMRI of Episodic Memory Function as a Biomarker: Patients At-Risk for AD and after Therapeutic Intervention
		Summary
		Semantic Memory
			fMRI of the Neuroanatomical Substrates of Semantic Memory
			fMRI of Semantic Memory in Normal Aging
			fMRI Studies of Semantic Memory in MCI and AD
			fMRI Studies of Semantic Memory Associated Connectivity in Healthy Young Adults
			fMRI of Semantic Memory in Patients At-Risk for AD and after Therapeutic Intervention
		Summary
		Working Memory
			fMRI Studies of the Neural Basis for Working Memory
			fMRI Studies of Working Memory in Healthy Aging
			fMRI Studies of Working Memory in MCI and AD
			fMRI Studies of Working Memory Associated Connectivity in Healthy Young Adults
			fMRI Studies of Working Memory Associated Connectivity in Healthy Aging, MCI, and AD
			fMRI Studies of Working Memory in Patients At-Risk for AD and After Pharmacological Intervention
		Summary
		Methodological Issues in the Use of fMRI in Aging and Dementia Research
		Future Directions
			Multi-Modal Imaging Studies and Technological Advancements in MRI
			Novel fMRI Memory Paradigms
		Conclusion
		References
	31: Brain Mapping for Cognitive Neuroscience and Neurosurgery
		Introduction
			The Unity Principle: Cortical Processes Are Linked to Mental Events—Lesion Studies to Neuroimaging
		Development of Magnetic Resonance Imaging to Visualize Living Brain Structure
		The Development of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging to Visualize Living Brain Function
			The BOLD Response
			The “Real Estate” Principle: Functional Specialization from “Bottom-Up” and “Top-Down”
		Identification and Preservation of Cortical Areas Specialized for Essential Tasks
			Standard of Care and CPT Codes
			Tasks for fMRI and Mapping of Essential Functions
				An Example of a Multifunction Task Battery
			Healthy Volunteers and Patients
				Sensitivity of Task Battery: Healthy Volunteers
				Sensitivity of Task Battery: Surgical Population
				Comparison of Task Sensitivity for Patients and Healthy Volunteers
			Accuracy of Task Battery: Comparison with Intraoperative Electrophysiology
			Comparison of fMRI, Wada, and Intraoperative Language Mapping
			Comparison of fMRI and Visual Fields
				Integrative Mapping of Sensory and Motor Functions
				Interoperative Mapping of Language Functions
				Postsurgical Status
		Functional MRI During Loss of Consciousness: A “Voice” for Unresponsive Patients
			“Zero-Tolerance” for Error
			Functional Mapping During Sedation
			Functional Mapping of Minimally Conscious Patients
				An Illustrative Case
			Objective Assessment of Patient States During a Disorder of Consciousness Based on the Extent of the Network Engaged by a Command to Name Objects
		Determination of the Anatomy and Topography of Cortical Areas Specialized for Cognitive Tasks
			Conservation of Effects Versus Individual Differences: Generalizing the Results
			Method of Cognitive Subtraction
			Method of Cognitive Conjunction
			Integration of Functionally Specialized Areas Associated with Cognitive Tasks: The Network Approach
		Functional Neuroanatomy of Language Processes: A Large-Scale Network
			Functional Neuroanatomy of Attention Processes: A Large-Scale Network
		Tests of Cognitive Theory Based on Mapping of Neural Correlates
			Functional Neuroanatomy of Working Memory: A Fixed- or Variable-Area Network
				The N-Back Task and a Test of a Cognitive Theory
			Functional Neuroanatomy of Selective Attention: A Neurological Model of Cognitive Interference
				The Stroop Task
		Functional Neuroanatomy of Executive Processes: Separate or Combined Systems
			The Go/No-Go Task
			Integration of Temporal and Spatial Information to Map Executive Processes
			Integration of ERP and fMRI
			Event-Related fMRI
			The Oddball Task
		The Functional Neuroanatomy of Very High Level Cognitive Processes
		Conclusion
		References
	32: fMRI of the Central Auditory System
		Introduction
		Anatomical Organization of the Central Auditory System
			Subcortical Organization
			Cortical Organization
				Primary Core Region
				Nonprimary Belt and Parabelt Regions
			Technical Challenges Involved in Auditory fMRI
			Sound Presentation in the MR Scanner
			Safe Scanning of Patients Who Are Wearing Listening Devices in the MR Scanner
			Intense Scanner Acoustic Sound
			Auditory-Friendly fMRI Acquisition Paradigms
			Clinical Applications of Auditory fMRI
			Plasticity Related to Hearing Loss as Measured by fMRI
			Plasticity Related to Amplification as Measured by fMRI
			Cochlear Implantation: Assessment of Candidature and Evaluation of Hearing Recovery
		Conclusion
		References
	33: fMRI of Epilepsy
		Introduction
		Special Issues in Patients with Epilepsy
		FMRI Applications in the Definition of Eloquent Cortical Areas in Epilepsy
			Lateralization and Localization of Language
			Memory Function
			Sensorimotor Systems
		Malformations of Cortical Development
		Localization of the Epileptic Focus
			Ictal fMRI
			Interictal fMRI
		Methodological Aspects of EEG-Correlated fMRI
		EEG-Correlated fMRI of Interictal Activity
		Conclusion
		References
	34: Functional MRI of Multiple Sclerosis
		fMRI Studies of the Visual System
		fMRI Studies of the Motor System
		fMRI Studies of Cognition
		fMRI of Fatigue, Depression, Pain, and Other MS Symptoms
		Connectivity
		Cervical Cord Activation
		fMRI of Pharmacologic and Behavioral Interventions
		Pediatric MS
		Conclusion
		References
	35: Applications of fMRI to Psychiatry
		Introduction
			Rs-fMRI
			Task-Based fMRI
		Mood Disorders
			Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)
				Rs-fc Studies
				Task-Based fMRI
					Executive Control Tasks
					Emotion Processing Tasks
			Bipolar Disorder (BD)
				Rs-fc Studies
				Task-Based fMRI
					Executive Function and Cognitive Tasks
					Emotion Processing Tasks
					Motor Tasks
			Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
				Rs-fc Studies
				Task-Based fMRI
					Symptom Provocation Paradigms
					Trauma-Unrelated Stimuli Paradigms
			Substance Use Disorders
				Rs-fc Studies
				Task-Based fMRI
					Cue-Related Reactivity
					Cognitive Tasks
					Emotion Processing Tasks
		Applications of Machine Learning in fMRI
		Conclusion
		References
	36: Applications of fMRI to Neurodegenerative Disease
		Introduction
		Aging Brain
		Neurodegenerative Diseases
			Functional MRI in Neurodegenerative Diseases
		Dementias
			Preclinical AD
			MCI
			AD
			Functional MRI Studies of Memory
				Functional MRI in Patients with MCI
				Functional MRI in Patients with AD
				BOLD Resting-State Connectivity in MCI and AD
					Preclinical AD
					MCI and AD
				Functional MRI Studies in Individuals at Genetic Risk for AD
				Functional MRI to Assess Pharmacologic Therapy for AD
				Overall Picture
			Frontotemporal Dementia
				Functional MRI in Patients with FTD
			Vascular Dementia
				Functional MRI in Patients with Vascular Dementia
			Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus
				Functional MRI in Patients with Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus
		Movement Disorders
			Parkinson’s Disease
				Motor fMRI in Patients with PD
					Motor fMRI Studies of Bradykinesia and Tremor.
					Motor fMRI Studies of Therapy for PD.
					Motor fMRI Studies in Patients with Familial PD.
					Motor fMRI Studies in Patients with Hemiparkinsonian Disease.
				Cognitive fMRI in Patients with PD
				Visual fMRI in Patients with PD
				Olfaction fMRI in Patients with PD
				Overall Picture
			Huntington’s Disease
				Functional MRI in Patients with Pre-HD
				Functional MRI in Patients with HD
			Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
				Resting-State fMRI in Patients with ALS
				Functional MRI of Motor Paradigms in Patients with ALS
				Functional MRI of Extramotor Paradigms in Patients with ALS
			Multiple System Atrophy
			Wilson’s Disease (Hepatolenticular Degeneration)
		Conclusion
		References
	37: Applications of MRI to Psychopharmacology
		Introduction
		Background
		Animal Research
		Clinical Research
		Conclusion
		References
	38: Functional MRI: Cognitive Neuroscience Applications
		Introduction
		Inference in Functional Neuroimaging Studies of Cognitive Processes
		Functional MRI as a Cognitive Neuroscience Tool
			Temporal Resolution
			Spatial Resolution
		Issues in Functional MRI Experimental Design
		Issues in Interpretation of fMRI Data
			Statistics
			Altered Hemodynamic Response
		Types of Hypotheses Tested Using fMRI
			Functional Specialization
			Functional Integration
			Cognitive Theory
			Integration of Multiple Methods
				Combined fMRI/Lesion Studies
				Combined fMRI/Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Studies
				Combined fMRI/Event-Related Potential Studies
				Combined fMRI/Pharmacological Studies
			Application of a Cognitive Neuroscience Approach to Clinical Studies
				Use of Biomarkers Derived from Cognitive Neuroscience Studies
		Conclusion
		References
Part VII: Diffusion Tensor Imaging: Physical Principles
	39: Diffusion Tensor Magnetic Resonance Imaging – Physical Principles
		Introduction
		Anisotropic Diffusion
		Diffusion-Weighted Imaging
		Implications of Anisotropic Diffusion for DWI
		Diffusion Tensor Imaging
			Common Artifacts
			Number of Diffusion-Encoding Directions
			Ratio of b = 0 Images to Diffusion-Weighted Images
			Signal-to-Noise Ratio
		Rendering DTI Data
			Spherical, Oblate, Prolate Tensors, and DTI “Data Mining”
			Trace
			Fractional Anisotropy
			Longitudinal and Transverse Diffusivity
		Basics of Tractography
		Crossroads
			Diffusion Kurtosis
			Time-Dependent Diffusion with Oscillating Gradients
			Geometric Multicompartment Models
			“Model-Free” Techniques
		Parallel Imaging
			In-Plane Parallel Imaging
			Simultaneous Multislice EPI
		Conclusion
		References
	40: Advanced Diffusion Imaging in Neuroradiology
		Introduction
		Diffusion Imaging and Diffusion Tensor Imaging
		Model-Free Q-Space and Diffusion Spectrum Imaging
		High Angular Resolution Diffusion Imaging
		Neurite Orientation Dispersion and Density Imaging
		Diffusion Kurtosis Imaging
		BI-Tensor/Free Water Imaging
		Hybrid Approaches
		Conclusion
		References
Part VIII: Diffusion Tensor Imaging: Clinical Applications
	41: Diffusion Tractography in Neurosurgical Planning: Overview of Advanced Clinical Applications
		Part I: Principles and Backgrounds of Diffusion Tensor Imaging and Diffusion Tensor Tractography
		Part II: Clinical Applications of Tractography
			Tractography in Deep Brain Stimulation
			The Role of Tractography in Epilepsy Surgery
			The Role of Tractography in Oncology
			The Role of Tractography in Multiple Sclerosis
			The Role of Tractography in Stroke
			The Role of Tractography in Spinal Cord Surgery
			Conclusion
		References
	42: Issues in Translating Imaging Technology and Presurgical Diffusion Tensor Imaging
		Introduction
		Disconnect Between Translational Research and Clinical Translation
		Determinants of Imaging Technology Translation
			Clinical Impact
			Relative Invasiveness
			Speed of Technology Development and Translation
			Physician Comfort
			Resource Impact
			Conceptualizing Relationships Among Translational Determinants
		Goals of Presurgical DTI
		Limitations of Color-Coded Fractional Anisotropy
		Importance of Integrating Presurgical DTI with Other Localization Parameters
			Clinical Presentation
			Functional Anatomy at Standard MRI
			Presurgical Mapping Anatomy and Techniques
			Intraoperative Brain Mapping and Intraoperative Functional Assessments
			Summary
		Protocols for Presurgical CC-DTI
		The Impact of CC-FA DTI on Operative Decision-Making
			Intraoperative Electrostimulation of White Matter (IES)
			Intraoperative Functional Dissection Testing (FDT)
			Summary
		Quality Assurance and the Translation of DTI
			Cataloguing Postoperative Neurological Outcomes
			Impact of DTI
		Guide to Clinical Fiber Tractography
			Acquisition
			Postprocessing
			Integration with Surgical Navigation System
		Limitations and Challenges of Fiber Tracking
		Color-Coded Fractional Anisotropy Versus Fiber Tracking
		Future Developments of DTI and Presurgical Fiber Tracking
		Conclusion
		References
	43: Clinical Applications of Diffusion MRI in Epilepsy
		Introduction
		Fundamental Concepts in Diffusion MRI
		Peri-ictal Diffusion MRI of Seizures
		Temporal Lobe Epilepsy
			Hippocampal Pathology
			White Matter Pathology
			Surgical Planning
		Malformations of Cortical Development
		Conclusion: Future Directions
		References
Part IX: Clinical Presurgical Brain Tumor Mapping
	44: fMRI and DTI: Review of Complementary Techniques
		Introduction
		BOLD fMRI
		Clinical fMRI
		Paradigms in Clinical fMRI
			Sensorimotor Paradigms
			Language Paradigms
				Expressive Language Paradigms
				Receptive Language Paradigms
				Semantic Paradigms
			Visual Paradigms
			Memory Paradigms
		Diffusion Tensor Imaging
			Diffusion-Weighted Imaging
			Diffusion Tensor
			Fiber Tractography
		Clinical Impact of BOLD fMRI and DTI
		Case Reports Highlighting the Value of Preoperative Combined BOLD fMRI and DTI for Presurgical Planning
			Case 44.1
				History
				Imaging Findings
				Impact on Surgical Management/Postoperative Outcome
				Histopathology
			Case 44.2
				History
				Imaging Findings
				Impact on Surgical Management/Postoperative Outcome
				Histopathology
			Case 44.3
				History
				Imaging Findings
				Impact on Surgical Management/Postoperative Outcome
				Histopathology
		Conclusion
		References
	45: DTI: Functional Anatomy of Key Tracts
		Introduction
			Association Tracts (Figs. 45.3, 45.4, 45.5, 45.6, 45.7, 45.8, 45.9, 45.10, 45.11, 45.12, 45.13, 45.14, 45.15, 45.16, 45.17, and 45.18)
			Commissural Tracts
			Projection Tracts
		Association Tracts
			Superior Longitudinal Fasciculus
				SLF I
				SLF II
				SLF III
				SLF IV (Arcuate Fasciculus Complex)
				SLF V (SLF TP-SPL)
			Inferior Fronto-Occipital Fasciculus
			Inferior Longitudinal Fasciculus
			Superior Fronto-Occipital Fasciculus
			Middle Longitudinal Fasciculus (MdLF)
			Extreme Capsule
			Frontal Aslant Tract
			Cingulate Fasciculus or Cingulum Bundle
			Fornix and Stria Terminalis
			Uncinate Fasciculus
		Commissural Tracts
			Corpus Callosum
			Anterior Commissure
			Miscellaneous Commissural Tracts
		Visual Pathway
			DTI: Clinical Cases (Figs. 45.39, 45.40, 45.41, 45.42, 45.43, and 45.44)
		References
	46: Pediatric Applications of fMRI
		Introduction
		Uniqueness of FMRI in Children
		FMRI Technical Challenges in Children
			Study Design
			The Three Paradigm Types
			Passive Paradigms Under Sedation
				Sedation of Choice
			Motion
				Motion Correction (Image Postprocessing)
			Spatial Normalization
			Statistical Analysis
			Thresholding
		Applications
			Cortical Functional Mapping for Surgical Planning
			Language Mapping
				Noncooperative Patients
				Language Mapping of Partially Cooperative Children
				Language Mapping of Fully Cooperative Children
			Motor Mapping
				Motor Mapping in Noncooperative Patients
				Motor Mapping in Patients with Limited Cooperation
				Motor Mapping of Cooperative Patients
			Sensory Mapping
			Visual Mapping
				Noncooperative Patients
				Visual Mapping in Partial Cooperative and Full Cooperative Patients
			Auditory Mapping
				Auditory Mapping in Noncooperative Patients
				Auditory Mapping in Cooperative Patients
			Memory Mapping
			Complex Cognitive Functions
		FMRI in Specific Pediatric Conditions
			Development
			Epilepsy
				Ictal fMRI
				Interictal fMRI
				The Mean-BOLD
			Autism
			Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
			Dyslexia
			Brain Plasticity
			Other fMRI Studies in Specific Pediatric Conditions
			Pharmacology-fMRI (ph-fMRI) in Children
			Other Significant Findings in Task-Related fMRI on Children
			rs-fMRI in Children
				The Default Mode
				Clinical Application
		Conclusion
		References
Part X: Magnetoenphalopathy and PET Imaging
	47: Magnetoencephalography: Epilepsy and Brain Mapping
		Introduction
		Clinical Utility
			The MEG System
		The Clinical MEG Examination
		Recording of Spontaneous and Elicited Activity
		Evoked Recordings and Mapping
			Somatosensory
			Motor Mapping
			Visual Stimulation
			Language Function
		Conclusion
		References
	48: PET-CT/MR Imaging in Head and Neck Cancer: Physiologic Variations, Pitfalls, and Directed Applications
		Introduction
		Pertinent Head and Neck Anatomy
		Evaluating Head and Neck Cancer
		Limitations of Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		Limitations of FDG-PET in Evaluating Head and Neck Cancer
		Summary: PET-CT in the Evaluation of Head and Neck Cancer
		Conclusion
		References
	49: Simultaneous PET and MR Imaging of the Human Brain
		Introduction
		Integrating PET AND MRI: Hardware Perspective
			Challenges in Combining PET and MRI
			Approaches to Combining PET and MRI
				MR-Compatible Dedicated Brain PET Inserts
				Whole-Body PET/MRI Scanners
		Technologies Enabling New Science
			How Can Simultaneously Acquired MRI Improve PET?
				Attenuation Correction
				Motion Correction
				Partial Volume Correction
				Image-Based Arterial Input Function Estimation
				Deep Learning-Enabled PET Data Enhancement
			How Can Simultaneously Acquired PET Improve MRI?
				PET-Guided MR Imaging
				Artifact-Free MR Image Generation from Undersampled Data
				In-Vivo Quantification of “Smart” MR Probes
				Techniques for Cross-Calibration and Validation
		Promising Applications
			Basic Neuroscience
				Neuroreceptor Pharmacology and Modulation
				Brain Function, Behavior, and Cognition
				Functional Networks and Connectivity
			Psychiatry
				Schizophrenia
				Autism Spectrum Disorder
				Depression
			Alzheimer’s Disease and Dementia
			Other Neurological Applications
				Chronic Pain
				Brain Tumors
				Ischemic Stroke
		Conclusion
		References
Part XI: Emerging Neuroimaging Techniques
50: Functional Imaging in Autism Spectrum Disorder
	Introduction
	Autism Spectrum Disorder
	Magnetoencephalography
		MEG Investigations of Auditory Processing in ASD
		M50 and M100 Components
		Mismatch Field Component
	Auditory Gamma-Band Activity
	Theta, Alpha, and Beta-Band Activity
	MEG Investigations of Resting State in ASD
	Clinical Implications
	Conclusion
	References
51: The Role of Molecular Imaging in Personalized Medicine
	Introduction
	Linking Molecular Imaging, Cancer Biology, and Personalized Medicine
		The Application of a Systems Biology Approach to Cancer
		Cancer Biomarkers for Clinical Use
		Nanoparticles for Cancer MR Diagnostics and Therapeutics
			Magnetic Nanoparticles
			Quantum Dots
			Nanoshells
		The Role of Radiology in Personalized Medicine
		Clinical and Near-Clinical Molecular Imaging Applications Using Targeted Probes
			Oncologic Molecular Imaging for Detection of Nodal Metastases and Cancer Staging
			Molecular Imaging of Cell-Based Therapies
			Molecular Imaging of Dendritic Cell Migration to Regional Nodes for Tumor Immunotherapy
			Molecular Imaging of Gene Expression and Therapy
			Molecular Imaging of Thrombosis in Atherosclerotic Disease
	Conclusion
	References
52: Quantitative Metabolic Magnetic Resonance Imaging: A Case for Bioscales in Medicine
	Introduction
	Approaches to Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Neurodegenerative Disease
	Bioscales for Monitoring Disease Progression
	Quantitative Sodium Imaging and Cell Volume Fraction Bioscale
	Clinical Applications of Sodium Bioscales
	Subacute Stroke Management
	Tumor Response to Radiation and Chemotherapy
		Case 52.1
		Case 52.2
	Other Uses of Metabolic Imaging Bioscales
	Conclusion
	References
53: Magnetic Resonance Fingerprinting
	Introduction
	Overview of Technique
		Signal Acquisition
		Dictionary Generation
		Pattern Matching
		Reconstruction and Output
	Technical Advances
		Extended Coverage
		Partial Volume Effect
		Other Technical Advances
	Validation, Repeatability, and Reproducibility
	Clinical Applications
		Age-Related Physiological Changes in the Brain and Neurodegenerative Diseases
		Brain Tumor Imaging
		Epilepsy Imaging
		Radiation Therapy Planning
		Other Applications
	Bridging the Translational Gap
	Conclusion
	References
54: Neuroimaging of Brain Tumors in the Era of Radiogenomics
	Introduction
	Artificial Intelligence: Machine Learning and Deep Learning in a Nutshell
	Standardization of Brain Tumor Imaging
	Radiogenomics of Brain Tumors
		Adult Diffuse Gliomas
			Isocitrate Dehydrogenase (IDH) Mutation
			1p/19q Chromosomal Codeletion
			ATRX and TP53 Mutation
			MGMT Methylation Status
		Pediatric Diffuse Gliomas
			Diffuse Midline and Hemispheric Pediatric High-Grade Gliomas
	Ependymomas
		Embryonal Tumors–Medulloblastomas (MB) and Others
		Medulloblastoma
		Atypical Teratoid/Rhabdoid Tumor (AT/RT)
		Embryonal Tumor with Multilayered Rosettes (ETMR)
	Conclusion
	References
55: Radiomics and Radiogenomics in Glioma
	Introduction
	Relationship Between Genotypes and Radiomics in Glioma
		Isocitrate Dehydrogenase 1 and 2
		1p/19q Deletion
		ATRX
	O6-Methylguanine-DNA-Methyltransferase (MGMT)
		EGFR
		TP53
		Ki-67 Expression
	Conclusion and Future Perspective
	References
56: Quantitative T1ρ MR Imaging in Neuroradiology
	Background on T1ρ Magnetic Resonance Imaging
	T1ρ Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Applications to Brain Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		Normative Data
		Neurodegeneration
		Multiple Sclerosis
		Acute Ischemic Infarct
		Intracranial Neoplasm
	T1ρ Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Applications to Spine Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		Normative Data
	Conclusion
	References
57: Neurological Applications of Magnetic Resonance-Guided Focused Ultrasound Therapy
	A Brief History
	Sequence of Breakthroughs
	Current Ablative Applications in Movement Disorders
		Essential Tremor
		Parkinson’s Disease
	Current Applications in Blood–Brain Barrier Disruption
		Brain Tumors
		Alzheimer’s Disease
	Future Applications
	Conclusion
	References
58: CNS Machine Learning
	Introduction
	Basic Definitions
	Machine Learning: Some Basic Terms
	Common Machine Learning Algorithms
		Some Common Machine Learning Algorithms
			Regression Algorithms
			Classification Algorithms
			Clustering Algorithms
			Dimensionality Reduction Algorithms
			Ensemble Algorithms
	Deep Learning
		Training and Optimizing
		Overfitting and Data Augmentation
	Common Deep Learning Algorithms
		Autoencoder
		Convolutional Neural Network (CNN)
		UNET
			U-Nets
		Generative Adversarial Network (GAN)
	Model Design and Assessment
		Data Preparation and Augmentation
	Applications in Neuroradiology
	Detection
		Critical Findings on Emergent CT
		Screening for Aneurysm
	Classification
		Classify Different Tumors and Subtypes
		Classify Different Types of Dementia
	Segmentation
	Prediction
		Prediction in Acute Ischemic Stroke
		Predict Aneurysm Rupture Risk and Outcome
		Predict Conversion of MCI to AD
	Improving Image Quality
		Image Improvement and Synthesis
		Dose Reduction and Virtual Contrast Enhancement
		Reconstruction from Subsampled Diffusion-Weighted Imaging
		Improve Image Quality in Quantitative Susceptibility Mapping (QSM)
		Reduce Acquisition Time: Magnetic Resonance Fingerprinting
	Challenges Ahead
	Summary
	References
59: Anatomical and Functional Features of the Central Nervous System Lymphatic System
	Anatomy and Function of the Peripheral Lymphatic System
	Unmet Needs: Chronic Neurodegenerative Disorders
	Overview of the Human Glymphatic System
		Traditional Model of CSF Flow and Clearance
		Expansion of CSF Flow and Clearance in the Glymphatic Pathway
	Potential Relevance of Glymphatic Dysfunction in Disease
		Sleep
		Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus
		Cerebrovascular Disease
		Multiple Sclerosis
		Alzheimer’s Disease
	Conclusion
	References
60: TBI Sports Related Injury
	Introduction
	Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent (BOLD) Functional MRI
	Review of Resting-State fMRI Literature
	Review of Task-Based fMRI Studies
	Limitations and Considerations
	Arterial Spin Labeling (ASL)
	ASL Utilized in Patients During the Acute and Subacute Timeframes (<72 h to 3 months)
	ASL Study During the Chronic Timeframe (3 Months and Beyond)
	Summary
	References
Part XII: Functional Spine and Hydrocephalus Imaging
61: Functional MRI of the Spinal Cord: Diffusion Weighted, Diffusion Tensor Imaging, and Fiber Tractography
	Introduction
	Challenges and Possible Options for Acquisition of DWI and DTI in the Spinal Cord
	Clinical Applications of DTI in the Normal Spinal Cord and Spinal Cord Diseases
		DTI in Multiple Sclerosis of the Spinal Cord
		DTI in Spinal Cord Tumors
		DTI in Arteriovenous Malformations
		DTI in Cervical Degenerative Disease
		DTI of HIV in the Spinal Cord
		DTI in Transverse Myelitis
		DTI in Spinal Cord Injury
		DTI in Spinal Cord Ischemia
	DTI of Pediatric Spinal Cord
	Future Direction of DTI and FT in the Spinal Cord
	Functional MRI of the Spine
	Conclusion
	References
62: Advanced Neuroimaging for Spine Metastasis
	Background
	Imaging of Spinal Metastasis
		Conventional Spine Imaging
		Advanced MR Imaging: Perfusion Imaging/DCE-MRI
		Advanced MR Imaging: Diffusion-Weighted Imaging (DWI)
		Advanced MR Imaging: Perfusion Imaging
		Advanced MR Imaging: Opposed-Phased MR Imaging
		Advanced MR Imaging: Dixon Technique
	Posttreatment Imaging Options
		Conventional MRI
		Advanced MR Imaging: DWI
		Advanced MR Imaging: Perfusion MRI
		Advanced MR Imaging: Opposed-Phase Imaging
	Imaging in the Posttreatment Setting
	Conclusion
	References
		Further Reading
63: Hydrocephalus Imaging
	Introduction
	Clinical Presentation
		Etiologies of Hydrocephalus
		Communicating and Noncommunicating Hydrocephalus
		Clinical Testing and Imaging
		Hydrocephalus Treatment
		Imaging Methods for Hydrocephalus
			Nuclear Medicine
			Standard Cross-Sectional Imaging: CT and MRI
		Advanced MRI Approaches to Hydrocephalus
			Volumetrics
			Phase Contrast and Other CSF Flow Imaging
			Diffusion Tensor Imaging and Diffusion-Weighted Imaging
			MR Elastography (MRE)
			Noninvasive Measurements of Pressure and Compliance
		The Role of Imaging for Classification of Point of Obstruction
		High-Resolution 3D MRI Demonstrates Radiologic Patterns of Disease
		AH-1: Foramen of Monro Stenosis
			Radiologic Pattern
			Etiologies and Clinical Management
		AH-2
			AH-2a: Stenosis or Obstruction of the Cerebral Aqueduct
				Radiologic Pattern
				Etiologies and Clinical Management
			AH-2b Fourth Ventricular Outflow Obstruction
				Radiologic Pattern
				Etiologies and Clinical Management
		AH-3: Posterior Basal Cisternal Obstruction
			Radiologic Pattern
			Etiologies and Clinical Management
		AH-4: Apparent Loculations in the Cortical Subarachnoid Space
			Radiologic Pattern
			Etiologies and Clinical Management
		AH-5: Not Otherwise Specified
			Radiologic Pattern
			Etiologies and Clinical Management
		Imaging of the Postoperative Patient
			Imaging of Ventriculostomy Tubes
			Endoscopic Third Ventriculostomy
	Summary
	References
Part XIII: Neuroanatomical Brain Atlas
64: Neuroanatomical Atlas of Key Presurgical and Cognitive Eloquent Cortex Regions
	Introduction
	Key Clinical Brodmann Areas: Neuroanatomical and Cognitive Correlates
	Inferior Frontal Gyrus
		Functional Role
	Superior Temporal Gyrus
		Functional Role
	Middle Frontal Gyrus/Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex
		Functional Role
	Superior Frontal Gyrus
		Functional Role
	Precentral Gyrus
		Functional Role
	Supplementary Motor Area
		Functional Role
	Orbitofrontal Cortex
		Functional Role
	Posterior Cingulate Cortex
		Functional Role
	Anterior Cingulate
		Functional Role
	Cerebellum (Hand Movement)
		Functional Role
	Inferior Parietal Lobule
		Functional Role
	Hippocampus: Medial Middle Temporal Gyrus
		Functional Role
	Transverse Temporal Gyrus
		Functional Role
	Fusiform Gyrus
		Functional Role
	Visual Cortex
		Functional Role
	Ventral Occipitotemporal Cortex (VOTC)
		Functional Role
	References
65: Normal Anatomic Atlas of Common White Matter Tracts Using DTI
	DTI Atlas
66: fMRI Paradigms
	Introduction
	Sentence Completion Paradigm
		Paradigm Description
		Paradigm Parameters
		Paradigm Instructions
			English
			Russian
			Spanish
			Italian
			Vietnamese
			Gibberish (Rest Condition):
	Word Generation Paradigm
		Paradigm Description
		Paradigm Parameters
		Paradigm Instructions
	Verb Generation Paradigm
		Paradigm Description
		Paradigm Parameters
		Paradigm Instructions
	Language Rhyming Paradigm
		Paradigm Description
		Paradigm Parameters
		Paradigm Instructions
	Motor Task Paradigm
		Paradigm Description
		Paradigm Parameters
		Paradigm Instructions
			Hand Movement
			Foot/Toe Movement
			Tongue Movement
			Lip Movement
	Visual Task Paradigm
		Paradigm Description
		Paradigm Parameters
		Paradigm Instructions
			Adapting Tasks to Patient’s Functional Status:
	Scene Encoding and Recognition Paradigm
		Paradigm Description
		Encoding
			Paradigm Parameters
			Paradigm Instructions
		Recognition
			Paradigm Parameters
		Paradigm Instructions
	References
Index