Functional biochemistry in health & disease

Functional Biochemistry in Health and Disease......Page 5
Contents......Page 9
Preface......Page 13
Acknowledgements......Page 15
I: INTRODUCTION......Page 19
Cell structure......Page 21
Tissues......Page 26
Nervous tissue......Page 28
The biochemical hierarchy......Page 31
II: ESSENTIAL TOPICS INDYNAMIC BIOCHEMISTRY......Page 33
2: Energy: In the Body, Tissues and Biochemical Processes......Page 35
Energy transformations in the whole body......Page 36
Energy transformations in tissues and organs......Page 44
Energy transformation in biochemical reactions and pathways......Page 46
Adenosine triphosphate: its role in the cell......Page 50
3: Enzymes: Activities, Properties, Regulation and Physiology......Page 53
Nomenclature and classification......Page 54
Basic facts......Page 55
Mechanisms by which an enzyme enhances the rate of a reaction......Page 56
Cofactors and prosthetic groups......Page 58
Factors that change the activity of an enzyme......Page 59
Allosteric inhibition......Page 66
The physiological significance of Km and Vmax values......Page 69
Enzymes as tools......Page 72
Enzymes in diagnosis......Page 76
Enzymes as targets for therapy......Page 77
Kinetic structure of a biochemical pathway......Page 79
Regulation of enzyme activity......Page 81
4: Transport into the Body: The Gastrointestinal Tract, Digestion and Absorption......Page 87
Gross structure of the gastrointestinal tract......Page 88
Biochemistry of cooking and food preparation......Page 91
Digestion and absorption......Page 93
The gastrointestinal tract and disease......Page 100
Structure of the plasma membrane......Page 103
Diffusion through membranes......Page 105
Active transport......Page 107
Endocytosis and exocytosis......Page 109
Physiological importance of some transport systems......Page 111
III: ESSENTIAL METABOLISM......Page 113
6: Carbohydrate Metabolism......Page 115
Glycolysis......Page 116
The biochemical and physiological importance of anaerobic glycolysis......Page 122
Regulation of the flux through glycolysis......Page 125
Glycogen synthesis......Page 126
The pentose phosphate pathway......Page 128
Gluconeogenesis: glucose formation from non-carbohydrate sources......Page 130
Role of the liver in the regulation of the blood glucose concentration......Page 135
Hormones and control of gluconeogenesis......Page 141
Regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis by ATP/ADP concentration ratio in the liver......Page 142
Hypoglycaemia......Page 143
Hyperglycaemia......Page 144
7: Fat Metabolism......Page 145
Fat fuels......Page 146
Physiological importance of fat fuels......Page 160
Limitations or drawbacks of fats as a fuel......Page 163
Pathological concentrations of fat fuels......Page 164
Introduction......Page 167
Sources of amino acids......Page 169
Protein and amino acid requirements......Page 173
Fate of amino acids......Page 175
Central role of transdeamination......Page 183
Amino acid metabolism in different tissues......Page 185
Glutamine: an amino acid of central importance......Page 190
Urea ‘salvage’......Page 195
The Krebs cycle......Page 199
The electron transfer chain......Page 202
Oxidative phosphorylation......Page 203
Coupling of electron transfer with oxidative phosphorylation......Page 204
Transport into and out of mitochondria......Page 208
‘Energy’ transport in the cytosol: the creatine/phosphocreatine shuttle......Page 211
Regulation of fluxes......Page 212
The physiological importance of mitochondrial ATP generation......Page 218
The effect of ageing on ATP generation......Page 224
Roles of ammonia......Page 229
Urea synthesis......Page 230
Degradation of nucleic acids, nucleotides, nucleosides and bases: the generation of ammonia......Page 235
Ammonia toxicity......Page 237
Deficiencies of urea cycle enzymes......Page 238
Synthesis of long-chain fatty acids......Page 241
Unsaturated fatty acids......Page 247
Essential fatty acids......Page 251
Phospholipids......Page 257
Fatty messenger molecules......Page 261
Fatty acids in neurological and behavioural disorders......Page 269
Endocrine hormones: traditional and novel......Page 271
The action, effects and functions of a hormone......Page 274
Action of hormones......Page 275
The biochemical and physiological effects of a hormone......Page 276
Pheromones......Page 282
Kinetic principles that apply to hormone action......Page 284
IV: ESSENTIAL PROCESSES OF LIFE......Page 291
The mechanical basis of movement by skeletal muscle......Page 293
Structure of muscle......Page 294
Proteins involved in muscle action......Page 297
Regulation of contraction......Page 300
Fuels for muscle......Page 304
Fuels for various athletic events and games......Page 309
Fatigue......Page 312
Fatigue in patients......Page 317
Physical training......Page 318
Development of muscle......Page 319
Health hazards of physical activity......Page 321
Skeletal muscle diseases......Page 323
Mental activity......Page 325
Cells in the brain......Page 326
Electrical communication......Page 328
Chemical communication......Page 329
Fuels and energy metabolism in the brain......Page 337
Mental illnesses: biochemical causes......Page 338
Recreational drugs......Page 343
Basic information required for discussion of some biochemical aspects of nutrition......Page 349
Vitamins......Page 350
Minerals......Page 363
A healthy diet......Page 368
Nutrition for specific activities or conditions......Page 369
Overnutrition......Page 373
Malnutrition......Page 374
Functional foods and nutraceuticals......Page 376
Vegetarian diets......Page 377
Eating disorders......Page 378
16: Starvation: Metabolic Changes, Survival and Death......Page 381
Mechanisms for the regulation of the blood glucose concentration......Page 383
Metabolic responses to starvation......Page 385
Sequence of metabolic changes from intermediate starvation to death......Page 390
Progressive decrease in protein degradation in starvation......Page 391
When the physical barrier is breached......Page 393
The immune system......Page 395
Adaptive immunity......Page 398
Cytokines......Page 408
Mechanisms for killing pathogens......Page 409
Killing of intracellular bacteria and large parasites in the extracellular fluid......Page 414
Allergy......Page 416
Fuels and generation of ATP in immune cells: consequences for a patient......Page 418
The lymph nodes......Page 420
Tolerance......Page 422
Chronic inflammation and autoimmunity......Page 423
Conditions that reduce the effectiveness of the immune system......Page 424
Factors that increase the effectiveness of the immune system......Page 425
Return of the ‘old’ infectious diseases......Page 426
New infectious diseases......Page 429
Defence in the intestine......Page 433
Physiological and metabolic responses: the ebb & flow phases......Page 435
Nutrition......Page 438
Mobilisation of triacylglycerol and protein in trauma......Page 440
Metabolic changes in trauma and in starvation......Page 441
Summary of the effects of trauma on the immune system and the whole body......Page 444
Male reproductive system......Page 447
Female reproductive system......Page 451
The menstrual cycle......Page 452
Ovulation......Page 453
Chemical communication in male and female reproduction......Page 454
Coitus and the sexual response in the male and female......Page 458
Fertilisation......Page 460
Pregnancy......Page 462
Parturition......Page 463
Contraception......Page 464
Sexually transmitted diseases......Page 466
Introduction to cell proliferation......Page 469
The cell cycle......Page 470
Death......Page 495
V: SERIOUS DISEASES......Page 501
21: Cancer: Genes, Cachexia and Death......Page 503
Basic information......Page 504
Oncogenes and proto-oncogenes......Page 506
Proteins expressed by oncogenes......Page 507
Processes by which proto-oncogenes can be activated or converted to oncogenes......Page 510
Tumour suppressor genes......Page 511
Metastasis......Page 513
Metabolic changes in cancer patients......Page 514
Cancer-causing agents or conditions......Page 518
Chemotherapy......Page 523
Radiotherapy......Page 525
Atherosclerosis......Page 527
Hypertension......Page 539
Heart attack (myocardial infarction)......Page 542
Index......Page 547