From Electrons to Elephants and Elections: Exploring the Role of Content and Context

Foreword
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Contents
Setting the Context
Are You Content in Your Context?
	1 Editorial Notes
	References
The Incremental Chain of Being
	1 How Came We to This?
	2 Broad Brush History
	3 Antireductionism and Levels
	4 The Metaphysics of Functionalism
	5 Davidsonian Supervenience
	6 Dénoument
	References
Does Linguistics Need (Weak) Emergence?
	1 What is Weak Emergence?
	2 Levels in Linguistics
	3 The Case for the Failure of Reduction
	4 Truth-Evaluability as Weak Emergent
	5 Weak Emergence and Linguistics
	References
Contextual Meaning and Theory Dependence
	1 Introduction
	2 Semantic Contextualism: a Brief Overview
		2.1 Parameterized Contexts
		2.2 Semantic Underdetermination and Interpretation as Inference
	3 The Problems of Theory Dependence
		3.1 The Problems
		3.2 Definitional Meaning Does Not Imply an Epistemic Priority of Analyticity
	4 Tackling the Problems
		4.1 The Case for Local Holism
		4.2 Tracking Theories
	5 Summary
	References
Scientific Naturalism and Its Faults
	References
Scientific Emergentism and the Mutualist Revolution: A New Guiding Picture of Nature, New Methodologies and New Models
	1 The Wave of Compositional Explanations from the Scientific Revolution Onwards
	2 A Second Wave of Findings about Parts: Understanding Challenging Compositional Cases
	3 Scientific Reductionism, its Guiding Picture of Nature and Practical Import
	4 The Mutualism of Scientific Emergentism: The Core Idea
	5 A New Guiding Picture of Nature and its Implications
	6 New Models and New Explanations: Resources for Challenging Compositional Cases and Beyond
	7 Conclusion
	References
Causation in Buddhist Philosophy
	1 Introduction
	2 Background
		2.1 Holism and Reductionism
		2.2 Causation
	3 Abhidharma Buddhism
		3.1 Pratītyasamutpāda
		3.2 Dharmas
		3.3 Reflections on Causation
	4 Madhyamaka Buddhism
		4.1 Emptiness
		4.2 The Structure of Emptiness
		4.3 Reduction and Holism Again
	5 Huayan Buddhism
		5.1 The Net of Indra
		5.2 Li and Shi
		5.3 Interpenetration
		5.4 Reduction and Holism Again
	6 Conclusion
	References
A Realistic View of Causation in the Real World
	1 Introduction: Reduction, Emergence, and Natures of Causation
	2 The Influence of Cosmology on Structure Formation: Contexts for Lower Level Dynamics
	3 Downward Causation and Plasma Membrane Proteins: Altering Lower Level Constraints.
	4 Adaptive Selection and Developmental Biology: Deleting or Altering Lower Level Elements
	5 Feedback Control, Basins of Attraction, and Biological Oscillators
	6 Examples in Ecology
	References
Where is the Top and What Might Go Down?
	1 The Four Causes and the Special Sciences
	2 “Top-Down” Explanation and Locality in Physics
	Reference
Multiplicity, Logical Openness, Incompleteness, and Quasi-ness as Peculiar Non-reductionist Properties of Complexity
	1 Introduction
	2 Emergent and Non-emergent Multiple Systems
		2.1 Emergence and Multiple Systems
		2.2 Emergent Multiple Systems
		2.3 Variables to Model Emergent Multiple Systems
	3 Logical Openness
		3.1 Logical Closedness
		3.2 Logical Openness
	4 The Concept of Theoretical Incompleteness
		4.1 Compatibilities, Similarities, Analogies, Commensurability, and Equivalences
		4.2 The Concept of Theoretical Incompleteness
		4.3 More on Incompleteness and Weak Forces
		4.4 Incompleteness as Necessary Condition for Radical Emergence
	5 Approaches: DYSAM and Meta-Structures
		5.1 The Dynamic Usage of Models (DYSAM)
		5.2 Meta-Structures
	6 Quasi-ness
	7 New Reductionism
	8 Further Research
	9 Conclusion
	References
Micro-Latency, Holism and Emergence
	1 The Structure of Inquiry and the Structure of the World
	2 The Prima Facie Case for Emergence
	3 Varieties and General Features of Emergence and Reduction
	4 The Micro-latency Hypothesis
	5 Gillett’s Mutualism
	6 Powers
	7 Flat Holism
	8 Flat Holism, Micro-latency and Mutualism
	9 Concluding Thoughts
	References
Enactive Realism. A First Look at a New Theoretical Synthesis
	Bibliography
Holism and Pseudoholism
	1 Introduction
	2 Over-Inclusive Holism
		2.1 Gaia
		2.2 Anthroposophy
		2.3 Certain Approaches to Patient-Centred Care
	3 Incomplete Holism
	4 Dogmatic Holism
	5 Conclusion
	References
Explanatory Emergence, Metaphysical Emergence, and the Metaphysical Primacy of Physics
	1 LaPlace’s Demon as a Philosophical Trope
	2 The Metaphysical Primacy of Physics
	3 Strong Metaphysical Emergence
	4 Weak Metaphysical Emergence
	5 Trans-theoretic Explanatory Uniformity Versus Physicalist Explanatory Emergence
	6 Strong Reduction, Weak Reduction, and the Unity of Science
	References
Contextual Emergence: Constituents, Context and Meaning
	1 Ontological Reductionism or Radical Emergence?
	2 A False Forced Choice
	3 Contextual Emergence: Between Ontological Reductionism and Radical Emergence
	4 A Broad Pattern
	5 Does Contextual Emergence Do the Job?
	6 The Big Picture and Meaning
	References
Mathematics/Theoretical Physics
Contents, Contexts, and Basics of Contextuality
	1 Contents, Contexts, and Random Variables
	2 Intuition of (non)contextuality
	3 Making It Rigorous: Couplings
	4 Making It Rigorous: Contextuality
	5 Generalizing to Arbitrary Systems
	6 Other Examples
	7 What if the System Is Deterministic?
	8 The Right to Ignore (or Not To)
	References
Content, Context, and Naturalism in Mathematics
	1 Introduction
	2 Content: If-Thenism
	3 Neutral Quantification
	4 Content Revisited: If-Thenism with Ontologically Neutral Quantifiers
	5 Content and Intuition: Intellectual Perceptions
	6 Perceptual Knowledge
	7 Intuitive Knowledge
	8 Context: Applying Mathematics, Models and Representations
	9 Fictionalism Defended: Naturalism
	10 Conclusion: Content and Context in Mathematical Practice
	References
Shared Mathematical Content  in the Context of Complex Systems
	1 Introduction
	2 Differential Equations for Pattern Formation
	3 Critical Exponents
	4  A Set of Stochastic Reactions
	5 The Tracy-Widom Distribution and a Third-Order Phase Transition
	6 Summary and Conclusions
	References
United but not Uniform: Our Fecund Universe
	References
Probability, Typicality and Emergence in Statistical Mechanics
	1 Introduction
	2 Probability and Real World
		2.1 Statistical Mechanics as Statistical Inference?
	3 The Old Debated Problem of Irreversibility
		3.1 Use and Abuse of Probabilities (Ensembles) and Entropies
		3.2 The H Theorem
		3.3 Again About Entropies and Probability
	4 Typicality and Irreversibility
		4.1 Typicality in Stochastic Models
		4.2 Typicality in Large Deterministic Systems
	5 Summary and Conclusion
	References
The Metal: A Model for Modern Physics
	1 Introduction
	2 Electrons in a Box
	3 Energies and Bands
	4 Quasiparticles and Field Theory
	5 Phase Transitions
	6 Scale, Ohm's Law and Dimensionality
	7 Conclusion
	References
Spacetime Emergence: Collapsing  the Distinction Between Content  and Context?
	1 Introduction
	2 Quantum Gravity
		2.1 Loop Quantum Gravity
	3 Fundamentality
	4 Reduction
	5 Emergence
	6 Hierarchical Emergence: Content
		6.1 Hierarchical Emergence of Spacetime in LQG
	7 Flat Emergence: Context
		7.1 Flat Emergence in Loop Quantum Cosmology
	8 Phase Transitions
		8.1 Geometrogenesis
	9 Collapsing the Distinction
	10 Conclusion
	References
Topological Quantum Field Theory and the Emergence of Physical Space–Time from Geometry. New Insights into the Interactions Between Geometry and Physics
	1 Introduction
	2 Einstein’s General Relativity and the Interaction Between Curvature and Matter
	3 Quantum Mechanics and the Idea of Non-Commutativity
	4 Gauge Theories: From H. Weyl to Yang-Mills
	5 String Theory and the Supersymmetric Picture of the Quantum World
	6 New Developments and Conceptual Issues in Quantum Field Theory
	7 Non-Commutative Geometry and the Quantum Fields
	8 The “ontology” of Newtonian Physics and Quantum Field Theory
	9 What It Could Be a Quantum Geometry of Space–time?
	10 New Insights Into the Nature of Space–time
	11 Topological Quantum Field Theory
	12 Concluding Remarks
	References
The Electron and the Cosmos: From the Universe of Fragmented Objects to the Particle-World
	1 Prelude: Ninety (Three) Years Later
	2 From Fantappié to the Bindu
	3 Quantizing the Center of the Vacuum
	4 Pauses in Time
	5 An Emergent Space-Time-Matter Made of Signs
	6 A Self-reflective Universe
	7 Epilogue
	References
“A Novel Feature of Atomicity in the Laws of Nature”: Quantum Theory Against Reductionism
	1 Introduction
	2 Reality Without Realism
	3 Complementarity
	4 Measurement, Phenomena, and Atomicity: Bohr Against Whitehead
	5 What is an Elementary Particle?
	6 Conclusion
	References
Geometric and Exotic Contextuality in Quantum Reality
	1 Introduction
	2 A Glance at Two-Qubit Parity Proofs of the BKS Theorem
	3 Geometric Contextuality
		3.1 Finite Geometries from Cosets ch26Planat2015,ch26Zoology2017,ch26PGHS2015
		3.2 The Kochen-Specker Theorem with a Mermin Square of Two-Qubit Observables
	4 Exotic Contextuality
		4.1 Excerpts on the Theory of 4-manifolds and Exotic R4's
		4.2 Finite Geometry of Small Exotic R4's, Quantum Computing and Quantum Contextuality
	5 Conclusion
	References
Quantum Identity, Content, and Context: From Classical to Non-classical Logic
	1 Introduction
	2 Content and Context in Quantum and Classical Physics
	3 Identity and Indiscernibility
		3.1 Identity in Classical Formal Settings
		3.2 Identity and Space and Time
		3.3 Indiscernibility in Classical Logical Settings
	4 Connecting Identity to Context
	5 Quantum Mechanics in Classical Logical Settings
	6 Alternative Logical Approaches
		6.1 Quasi-set Theory
	7 Formulating Quantum Mechanics Within Quasi-set Theory
		7.1 The mathfrakQ-spaces
		7.2 A Vector Space Structure
		7.3 Inner Products
		7.4 Fock Spaces Using mathfrakQ-spaces
	8 Conclusions
	References
Contextual Probability in Quantum Physics, Cognition, Psychology, Social Science, and Artificial Intelligence
	1 Introduction
	2 Classical and Quantum Probability Calculi:  Measures Versus Complex Amplitudes
	3 Non-Kolmogorovness of QP and Its Contextual Background: Quantum-like Paradigm
	4 Quantum Formalism
		4.1 States: Pure and Mixed
		4.2 Entropy
		4.3 Projective Measurements
		4.4 Simplest Non-projective Measurements
		4.5 Quantum Instruments
	5 Classical and Quantum Probabilistic Formalization of the Concept of Rationality
		5.1 Savage Sure Thing Principle as the Rationality Axiom
		5.2 Quantum(-like) Rationality
	6 Social Laser
	7 Order-stability as a Bonus for Quantum Rationality
	8 Concluding Remarks
	9 Appendix: Contextuality of Kolmogorov Theory
	References
Cognitive Science/Computer Science
Nothing Will Come of Everything: Software Towers and Quantum Towers
	1 First Lens: Computer Science
		1.1 Compositionality
		1.2 Challenges to Compositionality
	2 Second Lens: Quantum Mechanics
		2.1 Entanglement and Quantum Holism
		2.2 Contextuality: Is There a Whole?
		2.3 Discussion
	3 Concluding Remarks
	References
The Quantum-like Behavior of Neural Networks
	1 Introduction
	2 Neural Networks
		2.1 Neural Networks: Structure and Dynamics
		2.2 The Training of Networks—Two Examples
	3 Non-classical Behavior of Neural Networks
		3.1 States and Observables
		3.2 Attractors in Neural Networks
		3.3 Non-commutativity
		3.4 Causality and Observed Indeterminism
		3.5 Memory and Novelty
	4 Contextuality in Neural Networks
		4.1 Preliminary Historical Remarks
		4.2 CHSH as Contextuality
		4.3 CHSH in Quantum Cognition
		4.4 Signaling and Contextuality
		4.5 Neural Networks Can Violate CHSH
	5 Conclusions
	References
Concepts, Experts, and Deep Learning
	1 From GOFAI to Deep Learning
	2 Back to Concept Empiricism?
	3 Experts and Skill Acquisition
	4 Discussion: Content and Context
	References
A Route to Intelligence: Oversimplify and Self-monitor
	References
Context is King: Contextual Emergence in Network Neuroscience, Cognitive Science, and Psychology
	1 Introduction
	2 Contextual Emergence
	3 Contextual Emergence in Network Neuroscience and Cognitive Science
		3.1 Systems Neuroscience and Social Neuroscience
		3.2 Organizational Features of the Brain and Related Complex Biological Systems
		3.3 Network Neuroscience
		3.4 Implications for the Relationship Between Neuroscience, Cognitive Science, Psychiatry and Clinical Psychology
	4 Conclusion: Looking Backward or Moving Forward?
	Bibliography
From Electrons to Elephants: Context and Consciousness
	1 History Matters
	2 Is an Elephant One and the Same as an Aggregate of Sub-atomic Particles?
	3 An Elephant Never Forgets; But What Makes an Elephant Conscious?
	4 The Hard Problem
	5 The Hardest Part of the Hard Problem
	6 The Solution
	7 Conclusion
	References
When Two Levels Collide
	1 A Mismatched Counterpart Cognitive-MCC Explanation Pair
	2 What Should We Make of Such Explanation Mismatches?
	3 When Distinct Cognitive Phenomena Get “Lumped” into a Single Neurobiological Mechanism
	4 Cross-Level Mismatches Beyond the Behavioral and Brain Sciences
	References
Biology
Some Remarks on Epigenetics and Causality in the Biological World
	1 Introduction
	2 The Different Meanings of Epigenetics
	3 Epigenetic Phenomena Mediate the Link Between Environmental Factors and the Processes of Inheritance
	4 On the Link Between Epigenetics and Diseases, Mediated by Aberrant Chromatin Alterations
	5 How Chromatin Arrangements Influence Gene Expression
	6 Organisms and Environment
	7 Reductionism and Emergence
	8 Many Levels of Causation Are Needed for Thinking the Biological Complexity and Functionality
	9 Conclusion
	References
Can Agency Be Reduced to Molecules?
	1 Introduction
	2 How Did Western Science Come to Deny Agency?
	3 Agency Has a Firm Modern Scientific Basis
	4 Biological Relativity: A Consequence of Organisms Being Open Systems
	5 Consequences for the Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
		5.1 Consequences for Organisms as Agents
		5.2 Consequences for the Nature-Nurture Debate
	6 Genes Cannot Be Selfish, People Choose Whether to Be Selfish or Cooperative
	7 Life is Problem-Solving
		7.1 Consequences for Evolution
	8 The Harnessing of Chance in the Immune System
	9 Integrating the Forms of Biological Causation
	10 The One-Eyed Watchmaker
	11 Limitations of the Modern Synthesis
	12 How Organisms Make Choices: Harnessing Chance in the Nervous System
	13 Relevant Processes in the Brain, Including the Cerebral Cortex
	14 Conclusion
	15 Relevant Source Literature
	References
The Epistemology of Life Understanding Living Beings According to a Relational Ontology
	1 Introduction
	2 Debating the Dynamics of Life
		2.1 Reductionism Versus Holism: Limits in the Debate
		2.2 Relational Ontology: An Alternative Proposal to the Reductionism-Holism Debate
	3 Elements for a New Epistemological Model
	4 Conclusion: Revising the Reductionism-Holism Debate
	References
Holism and Reductionism in the Illness/Disease Debate
	1 Introduction. The Two Souls of Medicine and the Illness-Disease Dichotomy
		1.1 Medicine: Two Souls for a Single Science
		1.2 The Illness-Disease Dichotomy: A Part-Whole Puzzle
		1.3 Can a Human Science Be a Science? Human Sciences and Objectivity
		1.4 The Treatment Plan
	2 Health, Disease, Illness: Analytic-Naturalistic Versus Holistic-Normative Perspectives
		2.1 Two Accounts of Health and Malady
		2.2 Irreconcilable Perspectives?
		2.3 Splitting the Normal and the Pathological
		2.4 Illness and Disease Are Not Fully Independent
		2.5 Disease Is Not Enough for a Human Science; Nor Is Illness
		2.6 A Recent Attempt to Heal the Old Gap
		2.7 Healing the Gap by Rethinking Causality
		2.8 An Open Challenge: Intersubjective Control
	3 Wakefield's “Harmful Dysfunction Model” of Health and Disease. A Way Out?
		3.1 Against the Nurture-Nature Dichotomy
		3.2 Opening a Crack in the Vicious Circle: Margolis’s Model
	4 Medicine as a Human Science
		4.1 Human Sciences: Habits as Law-Like Regularities
		4.2 Why Medicine Can Be a Science
		4.3 The Specificity of a Human Science
	5 Replicating the Illness/Disease Dichotomy: Statistics from Biology to Behaviour
	6 Reconciling Individual Observations and Statistics
		6.1 The Circle of Extraclinical and Clinical Knowledge
		6.2 Making Virtuous a Vicious Circle
		6.3 Reconciling Singularities and Regularities
	7 Conclusion
	References
About Context, Fiction, and Schizophrenia
	1 Introduction
	2 Breaks in Pathological Conversations
		2.1 Locating Failures
		2.2 Formalizing Empirical Data
	3 Three Levels of Context
		3.1 Discursive Context (Narrow)
		3.2 Presuppositional Context (Intermediate)
		3.3 Material and Social Context (Large)
	4 Schizophrenia and Context Management
		4.1 A Fourth Level: Pragmatic Context (Intermediate)
		4.2 From Fiction to Schizophrenia
		4.3 More About Schizophrenic Pragmatic Contexts
	5 Conclusion
	References
Humanities and Social Sciences
On the Explanation of Social and Societal Facts
	1 Introduction
	2 Traditional Methodological Individualism
	3 Ideal Types
	4 Situational Analysis
	5 Methodological Individualism at Work
	6 Institutional Individualism
	7 Explanatory Holism
	8 Explanatory Holism at Work
	9 Social Mechanisms
	10 Social Mechanisms and Ideal Types
	References
On the Irreversible Journey of Matter, Life and Human Culture
	1 Introduction
	2 Stable an Unstable Equilibrium
	3 Irreversible Steppingstones
	4 War and Peace
	5 Instability and Freedom
	6 The Human Condition
	7 An Ontology for Morality
	8 Challenging the Common View
	9 The Hidden Coherence
	10 The Global Scenario
	11 Concentration of Meaning
	12 Concluding Remarks
	References
Architecture and Big Data: From Scale to Capacity
	References
Being or Tea?
	1 Heidegger: An East for west; Being and Time: An Orientation for Existence
	2 State-Of-Mind an Originary West
		2.1 Okakura’s Introduction to Eastern (Tea-)Culture
		2.2 A Comparison
	3 Conclusion
	References
Art is Critical
	References