Freshwater and Marine Ecology

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
1: Introduction
	Summary
	1.1 The Place of Ecology Within Biological Sciences
		1.1.1 Definition
		1.1.2 Knowledge Import and Export
		1.1.3 Why Aquatic Ecology?
	1.2 Ecology and Evolution
		1.2.1 Adaptation by Natural Selection
			Conditions for Adaptation
			Adaptation vs. Acclimatization
			Transgenerational Transmission of Epigenetic Modifications
			Selection via the Phenotype
			Sources of Variation
		1.2.2 Fitness
			Survival of the Fittest
			Components of Fitness
			Limits of Adaptation
		1.2.3 Ecological and Evolutionary Time Scales
			Ecology Fast: Evolution Slow?
			Rapid Evolution
			A Problem for Using Indicator Species and for Paleo-Ecology?
	1.3 Ecology as a Natural Science
		1.3.1 Ecology and Environmentalism
		1.3.2 From Gathering Knowledge to Theory
			Who? Collection, Nomenclature, and Classification
			How Many? How Much? Quantification
			Why? Explanation by Causality
				Box 1.1 Typology of Ecological Experiments
			Theory Formation
		1.3.3 Global Forecasts
	1.4 Outlook on the Structure of the Book
	References
2: The Aquatic Habitat
	Summary
	2.1 Surface Waters
		2.1.1 World Ocean
		2.1.2 Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs
		2.1.3 Running Waters
	2.2 Physical Properties of Water
		2.2.1 Density and Thermal Properties
		2.2.2 Viscosity and Motion in Water
		2.2.3 Suspension, Sinking, and Floating
	2.3 Chemical Properties of Surface Waters
		2.3.1 Dissolved Salts
		2.3.2 Dissolved Gases
		2.3.3 CO2 and the Carbonate System
			Box 2.1 Formation of Solid Carbonates: A Globally Important Process
		2.3.4 Redox Reactions
		2.3.5 Dissolved Organic Substances
	2.4 Underwater Light Climate
		2.4.1 Surface Irradiance
		2.4.2 Units of Measuring Irradiance
		2.4.3 The Vertical Attenuation of Light
			Box 2.2 The Secchi Disk and Some Simple Rules of Thumb
	2.5 Vertical Stratification
		2.5.1 Temperature Stratification in Lakes
		2.5.2 Thermohaline Stratification in Marine Waters
		2.5.3 Vertical Stratification of Biologically Active Elements
	2.6 Bottom and Margin of Water Bodies
		2.6.1 Sediment
		2.6.2 Hard Substrates
	2.7 Horizontal Movements of Water
		2.7.1 Currents
		2.7.2 Tides
		2.7.3 Running Waters
	Glossary
	Exercise Questions
	References
3: Life Forms of Aquatic Organisms
	Summary
	3.1 Representation of Higher Taxa in Water
	3.2 Basic Trophic Types
		3.2.1 Photosynthesis
		3.2.2 Chemosynthesis
		3.2.3 Heterotrophy
	3.3 Body Size
		3.3.1 Large Scale Statistical Relationships
		3.3.2 Small-Scale Statistical Relationships
	3.4 Stoichiometry of Biomass
		3.4.1 C, N, and P in Major Biochemicals
		3.4.2 C:N:P Ratios of Aquatic Organisms
			Box 3.1 The Redfield Ratio, Highly Stimulating for Research, But Often Abused
	3.5 Plankton
		3.5.1 General Traits
			Box 3.2 Methodology of Plankton Sampling
		3.5.2 Phytoplankton and Mixoplankton
			Cells and Colonies
			Size
			Motility
			Generation Times, Growth Patterns
			Mixotrophy
			Specific Nutritional Requirements and Abilities
		3.5.3 Zooplankton
			Trophic Roles
			Size
			Motility
		3.5.4 Bacterioplankton
		3.5.5 Mycoplankton
		3.5.6 Planktonic Viruses
	3.6 Nekton
		3.6.1 Taxonomic Groups
		3.6.2 Swimming Behavior
			Swarming
			Vertical Migrations
			Migrations Related to the Life Cycle
				Box 3.4 Migration of the European (Anguilla anguilla) and the American eel (Anguilla rostrata)
				Box 3.5 Migration of Herring (Clupea harengus) in the North Sea and the NE Atlantic Ocean
				Box 3.6 Migration of Humpback Whales (Megaptera novaeangliae)
	3.7 Benthos on Hard Substrates
		3.7.1 General Remarks
			Motility
			Physical Association to the Substrate
			Size Classes
		3.7.2 Phytobenthos
		3.7.3 Zoobenthos
	3.8 Benthos of Soft Substrates
		3.8.1 General Remarks
			Size Classes
			Physical Association to Substrate
		3.8.2 Phytobenthos
			Microalgae
			Filamentous Algae
			Macroalgae
			Mosses
			Flowering Plants
		3.8.3 Zoobenthos
			Protists
			Metazoan Meiofauna
			Endobenthic Macrofauna
			Epibenthic Macro- and Megafauna
		3.8.4 Bacteriobenthos
			Heterotrophic, Aerobic Bacteria
			Heterotrophic, Anaerobic Bacteria
			Chemolithoautotrophic Bacteria
	3.9 Aquatic Larvae of Terrestrial Animals
		3.9.1 Insects with Benthic Larvae
		3.9.2 Insects with Pelagic Larvae
	Glossary
	Exercise Questions
	References
4: Ecophysiology
	Summary
	4.1 Coping with the Abiotic Environment
		4.1.1 The Optimum Curve
			Ecological Niche
		4.1.2 Temperature
			Moderate Variability of Temperature
			Thermal Optima and Environmental Temperature
			Temperature Dependence of Metabolic Rates
				Box 4.1 Aerobic Scope: A Measure of Well-being
			Regulation of Body Temperature
			Evolutionary Adaptation of Thermal Tolerance
		4.1.3 Salinity
			Osmosis
			Poikilosmotic Organisms (``Conformers´´)
			Hypertonic Regulators
			Hypotonic Regulators
		4.1.4 Desiccation
	4.2 Nutrition and Growth of Autotrophs
		4.2.1 Light and Photosynthesis
			Types of Photosynthesis
			Reaction Steps
			Photosynthetic Pigments
				Box 4.2 Measurement of Photosynthesis (Wetzel and Likens 1991; Lampert and Sommer 2007)
			Light Dependence of Photosynthetic Rates
			Vertical Profiles of Photosynthesis
			Carbon Limitation
		4.2.2 Mineral Nutrients
			Elements in Biomass
			Nutrient Limitation
			Nutrient Limitation of Growth: Monod Model
			Nutrient Limitation: Droop Model
				Box 4.3 Microalgal Cultures as Tool to Study Nutrient Requirements of Microalgae, Batch Culture vs. Chemostat (Jannasch 1974)
		4.2.3 Chemolithoautotrophy
			Electron Donors and Acceptors
			Some Important Chemosynthetic Reactions
			Spatial Distribution
			Chemolithoautotrophs as Endosymbionts
	4.3 Nutrition and Growth of Heterotrophs
		4.3.1 Osmotrophy
			Nutrient Limitation
				Box 4.4 Measurements of Heterotrophic Microbial Production
		4.3.2 Phagotrophy
			Feeding Mode and Food Selection
			Functional Response
			Assimilation and Production
			Food Quality
			Numerical Response
				Box 4.5 Measurement of Animal Production
	4.4 Dissimilatory Metabolism
		4.4.1 Aerobic Respiration
			Oxidation of Organic Substances
			Oxygen Supply
		4.4.2 Anaerobiosis
			Anaerobic Respiration
			Fermentation
			Methanogenesis
			Animal Anaerobiosis
	Glossary
	Exercise Questions
	References
5: Populations
	Summary
	5.1 Population Distribution In Space
		5.1.1 Abundance
		5.1.2 Distribution in Space
			Distribution Along Environmental Gradient
			Distribution in Isotropic Environments
	5.2 Distribution in Time
		5.2.1 Types of Abundance Changes
		5.2.2 Mechanisms of Abundance Changes
	5.3 The Mathematical Treatment of Population Growth
		5.3.1 Growth at Constant Rates
			Net and Gross Growth Rates
			Specific Growth Rates
			Exponential Growth
			Geometric Growth
		5.3.2 Limited Growth
			Carrying Capacity
			Density Independent Limitation
			Density-Dependent Limitation
			Positive Density Dependence
		5.3.3 Disentangling the Components of Population Dynamics
			Net Growth Rates
			Gross Growth Rate and Birth Rate
	5.4 Age Structure
		5.4.1 Survival Curve
		5.4.2 Distribution of Age Classes
		5.4.3 Life History Strategies
			Timing of Reproduction
				Box 5.1 Optimization of the Timing of First Reproduction
			Typology of Life History Strategies
	5.5 Genetic Structure
		5.5.1 Founder Effect
		5.5.2 Genetic Drift
		5.5.3 Local Adaptation
		5.5.4 Speciation
	Glossary
	Exercise Questions
	References
6: Interactions
	Summary
	6.1 Competition
		6.1.1 Types of Competition
		6.1.2 Interference Competition
		6.1.3 Exploitation Competition
			Box 6.1: Derivations of Tilman´s Mechanistic Theory of Resource Competition
		6.1.4 Competition Under Variable Conditions
		6.1.5 Evolutionary Consequences of Competition
	6.2 Predator-Prey Relationships
		6.2.1 General Patterns
		6.2.2 Grazing, Herbivory
		6.2.3 Predation Among Animals
			Box 6.2: Diel Vertical Migration: A Case History for the Search for Proximate and Ultimate Factors in Ecology
		6.2.4 Parasitism and Disease
	6.3 Positive Interactions
		6.3.1 Commensalism and Ecosystem Engineering
		6.3.2 Mutualism
	6.4 Complex Interactions
		6.4.1 Algal Nutrient Competition-Grazing-Nutrient Recycling
		6.4.2 Keystone Predation
		6.4.3 Trophic Cascades
		6.4.4 Alternative Stable States
	Glossary
	Exercise Questions
	References
7: Communities and Ecosystems
	Summary
	7.1 General Features
		7.1.1 Demarcation Problems
		7.1.2 Degree of Integration
		7.1.3 Structure
		7.1.4 Collective Properties
	7.2 Food Webs
		7.2.1 Food Chains and Trophic Levels
		7.2.2 From Food Chains to Food Webs
	7.3 Communities and Ecosystems Based on Ecosystem Engineering
		7.3.1 Macrophyte Stands
		7.3.2 Bivalve Reefs
			Box 7.1: From Mussel to Oyster to Mixed Reefs (Reise et al. 2017)
		7.3.3 Coral Reefs
			Box 7.2: Biological Threats to Coral Reefs
	7.4 Diversity and Species Richness
		7.4.1 Definition and Measurement
			Box 7.3: Measuring Diversity and Similarity
		7.4.2 Sources and Maintenance of Diversity
		7.4.3 Diversity Effects on Collective Properties
			Box 7.4: The Diversity-Function Discussion: Problems for the Conclusive Design of Studies
	7.5 Succession
		7.5.1 General Concept
		7.5.2 Drivers of Succession
		7.5.3 Benthic Examples
		7.5.4 Pelagic Seasonality: A Mix of Succession and Phenology
			Box 7.5: The Extended PEG-Model of Seasonal Plankton Succession (Sommer et al. 2012)
	Glossary
	Exercise Questions
	References
8: Biogeochemistry
	Summary
	8.1 Fundamentals of Energy and Matter Transfer
		8.1.1 Transfer of Energy
		8.1.2 Transfer of Matter
		8.1.3 Formation of Particulate Matter
		8.1.4 Regeneration of Dissolved Substances
		8.1.5 Sedimentation and Deposition
		8.1.6 Scale of Biogeochemical Cycles
	8.2 Specific Cycles
		8.2.1 Carbon Cycle
		8.2.2 Nutrient Cycles
		8.2.3 Oxygen Cycle
	8.3 World Production and the Oceanic Carbon Pump
		8.3.1 Plankton
		8.3.2 Benthos
		8.3.3 Global Sums of Primary Production
		8.3.4 The Biological Carbon Pump
	8.4 The Long-Term Imprint of Biological Production in the Ocean
		8.4.1 Biogenic Formation of Sediments and Rocks
		8.4.2 Biological Control of Seawater Chemistry
		8.4.3 Biological Control of the Atmosphere
	Glossary
	Exercise Questions
	References
9: Human Impacts
	Summary
	9.1 Eutrophication
		9.1.1 Causes
			Box 9.1: The OECD-Eutrophication Study (Vollenweider and Kerekes 1982)
		9.1.2 Consequences in the Pelagic
		9.1.3 Effects on Benthos
	9.2 Climate Change
		9.2.1 Physical Changes
		9.2.2 Biogeographic Shifts
		9.2.3 Shifted Seasonality of Biological Processes
		9.2.4 Future Primary Production
		9.2.5 Shrinking Body Size
		9.2.6 Risks for Coral Reefs
	9.3 Acidification
		9.3.1 Freshwater Acidification
		9.3.2 Ocean Acidification
	9.4 Overfishing
		9.4.1 Extent and Causes
		9.4.2 ``Fishing Down the Food Web´´ (Pauly et al. 1998)
		9.4.3 Restoration Efforts
	9.5 Biological Invasions
		9.5.1 Human Transport Vectors
		9.5.2 From Transport to Establishment
		9.5.3 Impacts of Invasive Species
			Box 9.2: Case Stories of Invasions and Their Impacts
	9.6 The Anthropocene
		9.6.1 Defining the Anthropocene
		9.6.2 Human Domination
		9.6.3 Do We Experience the Sixth Mass Extinction?
	Glossary
	Exercise Questions
	References
Index