Freedom on My Mind: A History of African Americans, with Documents

Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface for Instructors
Versions and Supplements
Brief Contents
Contents
Maps and Figures
Introduction for Students
Chapter 1: From Africa to America, 1441–1808
	Chapter Vignette: Prince Henry’s African Captives
	African Origins
		The History of West Africa
		Slavery in West Africa
	The Rise of the Transatlantic Slave Trade
		Europe in the Age of the Slave Trade
		The Enslavement of Indigenous Peoples
		The First Africans in the Americas
		The Business of Slave Trading
	The Long Middle Passage
		Capture and Confinement
		On the Slave Coast
		Inside the Slave Ship
		Hardship and Misery on Board
	Conclusion: The Slave Trade’s Diaspora
	Chapter 1 Review
	Document Project: Firsthand Accounts of the Slave Trade
		Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African, 1789
		Belinda, The Petition of Belinda, 1782
		James Barbot Jr., General Observations on the Management of Slaves, 1700
		A Slave in Revolt
		Alexander Falconbridge, An Account of the Slave Trade on the Coast of Africa, 1788
		The Brig Sally’s Log
	Notes
	Suggested References
Chapter 2: African Slavery in North America, 1619–1740
	Chapter Vignette: “20. and Odd Negroes”: The Story of Virginia’s First African Americans
	Slavery and Freedom in Early English North America
		Settlers, Servants, and Slaves in the Chesapeake
		The Expansion of Slavery in the Chesapeake
		The Creation of the Carolinas
		Africans in New England
	Slavery in the Middle Atlantic Colonies
		Slavery and Half-Freedom in New Netherland
		Slavery in England’s Middle Colonies
	Frontiers and Forced Labor
		Slavery in French Louisiana
		Black Society in Spanish Florida
		Slavery and Servitude in Early Georgia
		The Stono Rebellion
	Conclusion: Regional Variations of Early American Slavery
	Chapter 2 Review
	Document Project: Making Slaves
		The Codification of Slavery and Race in Seventeenth-Century Virginia, 1630–1680
		The Massachusetts Body of Liberties, 1641
		An Act for Regulating of Slaves in New Jersey, 1713–1714
		The South Carolina Slave Code, 1740
		Samuel Sewall, The Selling of Joseph, 1700
		The Code Noir
	Notes
	Suggested References
Chapter 3: African Americans in the Age of Revolution, 1741–1783
	Chapter Vignette: The New York Slave Plot of 1741
	African American Life in Eighteenth-Century North America
		Slaves and Free Blacks across the Colonies
		Shaping an African American Culture
		The Slaves’ Great Awakening
	The African American Revolution
		The Road to Independence
		Black Patriots
		Black Loyalists
	Slaves, Soldiers, and the Outcome of the Revolution
		American Victory, British Defeat
		The Fate of Black Loyalists
		Closer to Freedom
	Conclusion: The American Revolution’s Mixed Results for Blacks
	Chapter 3 Review
	Document Project: Black Freedom Fighters
		Phillis Wheatley, A Poem to the Earl of Dartmouth, 1772
		Phillis Wheatley, Letter to the Reverend Samson Occom, 1774
		Lemuel Haynes, Liberty Further Extended, 1776
		Jean Baptiste Antoine de Verger, Soldiers in Uniform, 1781
		Boston King, Memoirs of a Black Loyalist, 1798
		John Singleton Copley, The Death of Major Peirson, 1782–1784
	Notes
	Suggested References
Chapter 4: Slavery and Freedom in the New Republic, 1775–1820
	Chapter Vignette: Benjamin Banneker Questions Thomas Jefferson about Slavery in the New Republic
	The Limits of Democracy
		The Status of Slavery in the New Nation
		Slavery’s Cotton Frontiers
		Slavery and Empire
	Slavery and Freedom outside the Plantation South
		Urban Slavery and Southern Free Blacks
		Gabriel’s Rebellion
		Achieving Emancipation in the North
	Free Black Life in the New Republic
		Free Black Organizations
		Free Black Education and Employment
		White Hostility Rises, Yet Blacks Are Still Called to Serve in the War of 1812
		The Colonization Debate
	Conclusion: African American Freedom in Black and White
	Chapter 4 Review
	Document Project: Free Black Activism
		Absalom Jones and Others, Petition to Congress on the Fugitive Slave Act, 1799
		James Forten, Letters from a Man of Colour, 1813
		Sentiments of the People of Color, 1817
		Samuel E. Cornish and John Brown Russwurm, An Editorial from Freedom’s Journal, 1827
		Kidnapping of an African American Mother and Child, c. 1840
		Edward Williams Clay, Bobalition, 1833
	Notes
	Suggested References
Chapter 5: Black Life in the Slave South, 1820–1860
	Chapter Vignette: William Wells Brown and Growing Up in the Slave South
	The Expansion and Consolidation of Slavery
		Slavery, Cotton, and American Industrialization
		The Missouri Compromise Crisis
		Slavery Expands into Indian Territory
		The Domestic Slave Trade
	Black Challenges to Slavery
		Denmark Vesey’s Plot
		David Walker’s Exile
		Nat Turner’s Rebellion, the Amistad Case, and the Creole Insurrection
	Everyday Resistance to Slavery
		Disobedience and Defiance
		Runaways Who Escaped from Slavery
	Survival, Community, and Culture
		Slave Religion
		Gender, Age, and Work
		Marriage and Family
	Conclusion: Surviving Slavery
	Chapter 5 Review
	Document Project: Slave Testimony
		James Curry, Narrative of James Curry, a Fugitive Slave, 1840
		Slave Punishment
		Lewis Clarke, Questions and Answers about Slavery, 1845
		Mary Reynolds, The Days of Slavery, 1937
	Notes
	Suggested References
Chapter 6: The Northern Black Freedom Struggle and the Coming of the Civil War, 1830–1860
	Chapter Vignette: Mary Ann Shadd and the Black Liberation Struggle before the Civil War
	The Boundaries of Freedom
		Racial Discrimination in the Era of the Common Man
		The Growth of Free Black Communities in the North
		Black Self-Help in an Era of Moral Reform
	Forging a Black Freedom Struggle
		Building a National Black Community: The Black Convention Movement and the Black Press
		Growing Black Activism in Literature, Politics, and the Justice System
		Abolitionism: Moral Suasion, Political Action, Race, and Gender
	Slavery and the Coming of the Civil War
		Westward Expansion and Slavery in the Territories
		The Fugitive Slave Crisis and Civil Disobedience
		Confrontations in “Bleeding Kansas” and the Courts
		Emigration and John Brown’s Raid on Harpers Ferry
	Conclusion: Whose Country Is It?
	Chapter 6 Review
	Document Project: Forging an African American Nation — Slave and Free, North and South
		Sarah Mapps Douglass, To Make the Slaves’ Cause Our Own, 1832
		Henry Highland Garnet, An Address to the Slaves of the United States of America, 1843
		Frederick Douglass, What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July?, 1852
		Escaping Slavery via the Underground Railroad
		Dred and Harriet Scott
		Jim Crow
	Notes
	Suggested References
Chapter 7: Freedom Rising: The Civil War, 1861–1865
	Chapter Vignette: Robert Smalls and the African American Freedom Struggle during the Civil War
	The Coming of War and the Seizing of Freedom, 1861–1862
		War Aims and Battlefield Realities
		Union Policy on Black Soldiers and Black Freedom
		Refugee Slaves and Freedpeople
	Turning Points, 1862–1863
		The Emancipation Proclamation
		The U.S. Colored Troops
		African Americans in the Major Battles of 1863
	Home Fronts and War’s End, 1863–1865
		Riots and Restoration of the Union
		Black Civilians at Work for the War
		Union Victory, Slave Emancipation, and the Renewed Struggle for Equality
	Conclusion: Emancipation and Equality
	Chapter 7 Review
	Document Project: Wartime and Emancipation
		Alfred M. Green, Let Us . . . Take Up the Sword, 1861
		Isaiah C. Wears, The Evil Injustice of Colonization, 1862
		Susie King Taylor, Reminiscences of My Life in Camp, 1902
		William Tolman Carlton, Watch Meeting — Dec. 31st — Waiting for the Hour, 1863
		Private Hubbard Pryor, before and after Enlisting in the U.S. Colored Troops, 1864
		Freedmen’s Memorial, 1876
	Notes
	Suggested References
Chapter 8: Reconstruction: The Making and Unmaking of a Revolution, 1865–1885
	Chapter Vignette: Jourdon and Mandy Anderson Find Security in Freedom after Slavery
	A Social Revolution
		Freedom and Family
		Church and Community
		Land and Labor
		The Hope of Education
	A Short-Lived Political Revolution
		The Political Contest over Reconstruction
		Black Reconstruction
		The Defeat of Reconstruction
	Opportunities and Limits outside the South
		Autonomy in the West
		The Right to Work for Fair Wages
		The Struggle for Equal Rights
	Conclusion: Revolutions and Reversals
	Chapter 8 Review
	Document Project: The Vote
		Sojourner Truth, Equal Voting Rights, 1867
		Proceedings of the American Equal Rights Association, A Debate: Negro Male Suffrage vs. Woman Suffrage, 1869
		Mary Ann Shadd Cary, Woman’s Right to Vote, early 1870s
		A. R. Waud, The First Vote, 1867
		Thomas Nast, The Ignorant Vote, 1876
		Thomas Nast, Colored Rule in a Reconstructed(?) State, 1874
	Notes
	Suggested References
Chapter 9: Black Life and Culture during the Nadir, 1880–1915
	Chapter Vignette: Ida B. Wells: Creating Hope and Community amid Extreme Repression
	Racism and Black Challenges
		Racial Segregation
		Ideologies of White Supremacy
		Disfranchisement and Political Activism
		Lynching and the Campaign against It
	Freedom’s First Generation
		Black Women and Men in the Era of Jim Crow
		Black Communities in the Cities of the New South
		New Cultural Expressions
	Migration, Accommodation, and Protest
		Migration Hopes and Disappointments
		The Age of Booker T. Washington
		The Emergence of W. E. B. Du Bois
	Conclusion: Racial Uplift in the Nadir
	Chapter 9 Review
	Document Project: Agency and Constraint
		The Lynching of Charles Mitchell, 1897
		The Lynching of Virgil Jones, Robert Jones, Thomas Jones, and Joseph Riley, 1908
		A Georgia Negro Peon, The New Slavery in the South, 1904
		W. E. B. Du Bois, Along the Color Line, 1910
		Letter to the Editor, From the South, 1911
		Chain Gang
	Notes
	Suggested References
Chapter 10: The New Negro Comes of Age, 1915–1940
	Chapter Vignette: Zora Neale Hurston and the Advancement of the Black Freedom Struggle
	The Great Migration and the Great War
		Origins and Patterns of Migration
		Black Communities in the Metropolises of the North
		African Americans and the Great War
	The New Negro Arrives
		Institutional Bases for Social Science and Historical Studies
		The Universal Negro Improvement Association
		The Harlem Renaissance
	The Great Depression and the New Deal
		Economic Crisis and the Roosevelt Presidency
		African American Politics
		Black Culture in Hard Times
	Conclusion: Mass Movements and Mass Culture
	Chapter 10 Review
	Document Project: Communist Radicalism and Everyday Realities
		W. E. B. Du Bois, Negro Editors on Communism: A Symposium of the American Negro Press, 1932
		Carl Murphy, Baltimore Afro-American
		W. P. Dabney, Cincinnati Union
		Angelo Herndon, You Cannot Kill the Working Class, 1934
		Richard Wright, 12 Million Black Voices, 1941
		Russell Lee, Negro Drinking at “Colored” Water Cooler in Streetcar Terminal, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, 1939
		Arthur Rothstein, Girl at Gee’s Bend, 1937
		Marion Post Wolcott, Negroes Jitterbugging in a Juke Joint on Saturday Afternoon, Clarksdale, Mississippi Delta, 1939
	Notes
	Suggested References
Chapter 11: Fighting for a Double Victory in the World War II Era, 1939–1948
	Chapter Vignette: James Tillman and Evelyn Bates Mobilize for War
	The Crisis of World War II
		America Enters the War and States Its Goals
		African Americans Respond to the War
		Racial Violence and Discrimination in the Military
	African Americans on the Home Front
		New Jobs, Wartime Migration, and Race Riots
		Organizing for Economic Opportunity
	The Struggle for Citizenship Rights
		Fighting and Dying for the Right to Vote
		New Beginnings in Political and Cultural Life
		Desegregating the Army and the GI Bill
	Conclusion: A Partial Victory
	Chapter 11 Review
	Document Project: African Americans and the Tuskegee Experiments
		Interview with a Tuskegee Syphilis Study Participant, 1972
		Nurse Rivers
		Tuskegee Study Participants
		Alexander Jefferson, Interview with a Tuskegee Airman, 2006
		Tuskegee Airmen
		William H. Hastie and George E. Stratemeyer, Resignation Memo and Response, 1943
	Notes
	Suggested References
Chapter 12: The Early Civil Rights Movement, 1945–1963
	Chapter Vignette: Paul Robeson: A Cold War Civil Rights Warrior
	Anticommunism and the Postwar Black Freedom Struggle
		African Americans, the Cold War, and President Truman’s Loyalty Program
		Loyalty Programs Force New Strategies
	The Transformation of the Southern Civil Rights Movement
		Triumphs and Tragedies in the Early Years, 1951–1956
		New Leadership for a New Movement
		The Watershed Years of the Southern Movement
		White Resistance and Presidential Sluggishness
	Civil Rights: A National Movement
		Racism and Inequality in the North and West
		Fighting Back: The Snail’s Pace of Change
		The March on Washington and the Aftermath
	Conclusion: The Evolution of the Black American Freedom Struggle
	Chapter 12 Review
	Document Project: We Are Not Afraid
		Anne Moody, Coming of Age in Mississippi, 1968
		Cleveland Sellers, The River of No Return, 1973
		Elizabeth Eckford, The First Day: Little Rock, 1957
		Images of Protest and Terror
	Notes
	Suggested References
Chapter 13: Multiple Meanings of Freedom: The Movement Broadens, 1961–1976
	Chapter Vignette: Stokely Carmichael and the Meaning of Black Power
	The Emergence of Black Power
		Expanding the Struggle beyond Civil Rights
		Early Black Power Organizations
		Malcolm X
	The Struggle Transforms
		Black Power and Mississippi Politics
		Bloody Encounters
		Black Power Ascends
	Economic Justice and Affirmative Action
		Politics and the Fight for Jobs
		Urban Dilemmas: Deindustrialization, Globalization, and White Flight
		Tackling Economic Injustice
	War, Radicalism, and Turbulence
		The Vietnam War and Black Opposition
		Urban Radicalism
	Conclusion: Progress, Challenges, and Change
	Chapter 13 Review
	Document Project: Black Power: Expression and Repression
		Huey Newton and Bobby Seale, October 1966 Black Panther Party Platform and Program
		Loïs Mailou Jones, Ubi Girl from Tai Region, 1972
		Faith Ringgold, The Flag Is Bleeding, 1967
		Cointelpro Targets Black Organizations, 1967
		FBI Uses Fake Letters to Divide the Chicago Black Panthers and the Blackstone Rangers, 1969
		“Special Payment” Request and Floor Plan of Fred Hampton’s Apartment, 1969
		Tangible Results, 1969
		Church Committee Report, 1976
	Notes
	Suggested References
Chapter 14: Racial Progress in an Era of Backlash and Change, 1967–2000
	Chapter Vignette: Shirley Chisholm: The First of Many Firsts
	Opposition to the Black Freedom Movement
		The Emergence of the New Right
		Law and Order, the Southern Strategy, and Anti–Affirmative Action
		The Reagan Era
	The Persistence of the Black Freedom Struggle
		The Transformation of the Black Panthers
		Black Women Find Their Voice
		The Fight for Education
		Community Control and Urban Ethnic Conflict
		Black Political Gains
		The Expansion of the Black Middle Class
	The Different Faces of Black America
		The Class Divide
		Hip-Hop, Violence, and the Emergence of a New Generation
		Gender and Sexuality
		All Africa’s Children
	Conclusion: Black Americans on the Eve of the New Millennium
	Chapter 14 Review
	Document Project: Redefining Community
		Combahee River Collective, The Combahee River Collective Statement, 1977
		Cleo Manago, Manhood — Who Claims? Who Does It Claim?, 1995
		Douglas S. Massey, Margarita Mooney, Kimberly C. Torres, and Camille Z. Charles, Black Immigrants and Black Natives Attending Selective Colleges and Universities in the United States, 2007
		A Graffiti Artist in Long Island City, Queens, New York, 2009
		Run-DMC, 1987
		Salt-N-Pepa, 1994
	Notes
	Suggested References
Chapter 15: African Americans and the New Century, 2000–Present
	Chapter Vignette: Barack Hussein Obama, America’s Forty-Fourth President
	Diversity and Racial Belonging
		New Categories of Difference
		Solidarity, Culture, and the Meaning of Blackness
		Diversity in Politics and Religion
	Trying Times
		The Carceral State, or “the New Jim Crow”
		9/11 and the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq
		Hurricane Katrina
	Change Comes to America
		Obama’s Forerunners, Campaign, and Victory
		The New Obama Administration
		Racism Confronts Obama in His First Term
		The 2012 Election
	Moving Forward
		Obama’s Second Term
		African Americans and Law Enforcement
	Conclusion: The Promise or Illusion of the New Century
	Chapter 15 Review
	Document Project: #BlackLivesMatter
		Alicia Garza, A Herstory of the #BlackLivesMatter Movement, 2014
		Protesting the Killing of Unarmed Black Men
		Citizen-Police Confrontation in Ferguson
		“We Can’t Breathe” Headline
		The Police See It Differently
		Phoenix Law Enforcement Association, Recent Phoenix Police Officer Involved Shooting, 2014
		Thomas J. Nee, Letter to President Barack Obama and Attorney General Eric Holder, 2014
		Sybrina Fulton, Letter to Michael Brown’s Family, 2014
	Notes
	Suggested References
Appendix: Documents
	The Declaration of Independence
	The Constitution of the United States of America
	Amendments to the Constitution
	The Emancipation Proclamation [1863]
	Presidents of the United States
	Selected Legislative Acts
	Selected Supreme Court Decisions
	Selected Documents
Appendix: Tables and Charts
	African American Population of the United States, 1790–2010
	Unemployment Rates in the United States by Race and Hispanic Origin, 2005–2010
	African American Educational Attainment in the United States, 2011
	Educational Attainment in the United States, 1960–2010
	Historically Black Colleges and Universities, 1865–Present
	African American Occupational Distribution, 1900 and 2010
	African American Regional Distribution, 1850–2010
Glossary of Key Terms
Index
About the Authors
Inside Back Cover
Back Cover