Formaldehyde: exposure, toxicity and health effects

Content: Machine generated contents note: ch. 1 Introduction to Formaldehyde --
1.1.Formaldehyde --
The Origins of Life on Earth --
1.2.Endogenous and Exogenous Formaldehyde --
1.2.1.Endogenous Production of Formaldehyde --
1.2.2.Exogenous Synthesis of Formaldehyde --
1.3.Industrial Uses of Formaldehyde --
1.4.Medical Uses of Formaldehyde --
1.5.Global Economic Significance of Formaldehyde --
1.5.1.Production Capacity and Output --
1.5.2.Consumption and Distribution --
1.6.Public Health Risks from Formaldehyde Exposure --
1.6.1.Lumber Liquidators --
1.6.2.Brazilian Blowout --
1.6.3.Hurricanes Katrina and Rita --
1.6.4.Alaska Spill Accident --
1.7.Controversial and Neglected Issues in Formaldehyde Studies --
1.7.1.Controversy: Formaldehyde --
Leukemia Association --
1.7.2.US and China Focus --
1.7.3.Controversy: Formaldehyde Systemic Effects --
1.7.4.Neglected Study Areas --
1.8.Conclusion --
Acknowledgements --
References --
ch. 2 Formaldehyde Exposure, Regulation, and Metabolism Note continued: 2.1.Occupational Exposure and Regulation --
2.2.Indoor Air Exposure --
2.3.Outdoor Air Exposure --
2.4.Other Types of Exposure and Drinking Water Regulation --
2.5.Metabolism and Fate of Formaldehyde --
2.6.Conclusion --
Acknowledgements --
References --
ch. 3 Formaldehyde Exposure in China --
3.1.Formaldehyde Regulation --
3.2.Formaldehyde Exposure --
3.2.1.Occupational Exposure --
3.2.2.Indoor Exposure --
3.2.3.Outdoor Exposure --
3.2.4.Food Exposure --
3.3.Estimated Personal Exposure --
3.4.Conclusion --
Acknowledgements --
References --
ch. 4 General Toxicity of Formaldehyde --
4.1.Acute Toxicity --
4.1.1.Acute Poisoning --
4.1.2.Irritation --
4.1.3.Dermal Allergies --
4.1.4.Worldwide Case Reports --
4.2.Chronic Toxicity --
4.2.1.Neurotoxicity --
4.2.2.Pulmonary Function Damage --
4.2.3.Allergic Asthma and Immune System Effects --
4.3.Hematotoxicity --
4.3.1.Blood Formation via Hematopoiesis --
4.3.2.Reduced Blood Cell Counts Note continued: 4.3.3.A Featured Hematotoxicity Report --
4.3.4.Altered Lymphocyte Subsets --
4.3.5.Hematotoxicity Studies in Animals --
4.4.Genotoxicity --
4.4.1.DNA-Protein Crosslinks (DPCs) --
4.4.2.DNA-Protein Crosslink Repair in Yeast --
4.4.3.DNA Damage and Repair via the FANC-BRCA Pathway --
4.4.4.DNA Adducts --
4.4.5.Cytogenetic Alterations --
4.5.Functional Toxicogenomic Profiling and Epigenomic Alterations --
4.6.Summary of Formaldehyde Induced Toxicities --
Acknowledgements --
References --
ch. 5 Formaldehyde Carcinogenesis --
5.1.Carcinogenesis --
5.1.1.Nasopharyngeal Cancer --
5.1.2.Sinonasal Cancer --
5.1.3.Leukemia and Blood Cancers --
5.2.Cancer Studies in China --
5.3.History of Formaldehyde\'s Carcinogenicity Classification --
5.3.1.Importance of Carcinogen Classification --
5.3.2.Cancer Classification Agencies and Categories --
5.3.3.Classification History --
5.4.Controversy Regarding Formaldehyde --
Leukemia Association Note continued: 5.4.1.Can Formaldehyde Reach the Target Bone Marrow? --
5.4.2.Formaldehyde-induced Hematotoxicity and Stem Cell Toxicity --
5.4.3.No Formaldehyde-induced Leukemia in Animal Models --
5.5.Formaldehyde Carcinogenicity Summary --
Acknowledgements --
References --
ch. 6 Formaldehyde Exposure and Leukemia Risk --
6.1.Epidemiological Findings of Formaldehyde and Leukemia --
6.1.1.Classic Epidemiological Studies of Formaldehyde --
6.1.2.Updated NCI Study --
6.1.3.Updated British Follow-up Study --
6.2.Meta-analysis Approach --
6.2.1.Novel Study Design to Better Address Key Questions --
6.2.2.Collection and Selection of Epidemiological Studies --
6.3.Findings from Primary Meta-analysis --
6.3.1.Meta-analysis Results --
6.3.2.Increased Meta-relative Risks --
6.4.Results from Updated Meta-analysis --
6.5.Comparing All Meta-analyses --
6.5.1.Overview of the Results from Six Meta-analyses --
6.5.2.Comparison of Novel Approach with Traditional Meta-analyses Note continued: 6.5.3.Risk Varies in Industrial Workers vs. Professionals --
6.5.4.Comparison of Recent Meta-analyses: Exposure Metrics --
6.6.Summary and Conclusions --
Acknowledgements --
References --
ch. 7 Potential Mechanisms of Formaldehyde-induced Leukemia --
7.1.Overview of Leukemogenesis --
7.1.1.Leukemic Stem Cell Theory --
7.1.2.Chemically Induced Leukemias --
7.2.Targeting Hematopoietic Stem/Progenitor Cells --
7.2.1.Culturing of Myeloid Progenitor Cells --
7.2.2.Findings in Circulating Myeloid Progenitor Colony Cells of Exposed Workers --
7.2.3.Formaldehyde Inhibited Human Myeloid Progenitor Cells in vitro --
7.2.4.Formaldehyde Suppressed Myeloid Progenitor Cells in Murine Bone Marrow --
7.3.Models of Formaldehyde-induced Leukemia --
7.3.1.Traditional Model: Targeting Bone Marrow Hematopoietic Stem Cells --
7.3.2.Alternative Model 1: Targeting Blood Stem Cells and Progenitors --
7.3.3.Alternative Model 2: Targeting Pluripotent Nasal/Oral Stem Cells Note continued: 7.3.4.Alternative Model 3: Targeting Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cells in the Lungs --
7.4.Biological Plausibility of the Proposed Mechanisms --
7.4.1.Does Formaldehyde Induce Bone Marrow Toxicity and by Which Mechanisms? --
7.4.2.Does Formaldehyde Induce Hematotoxicity and Stem Cell Toxicity? --
7.4.3.Can Formaldehyde Damage Pluripotent Hematopoietic Stem Cells in the Nose and Lungs? --
7.5.Summary of Potential Mechanisms --
Acknowledgements --
References --
ch. 8 Formaldehyde Induced Leukemia-specific Chromosomal Aneuploidy --
8.1.Overview of Featured Study --
8.2.Study Design --
8.2.1.Identification of Study Factories and Subjects --
8.2.2.Demographic Characteristics of Study Subjects --
8.2.3.Exposure Assessment --
8.2.4.Biological Sampling and Physical Examination --
8.2.5.Preparing Metaphase from Cultured CFU --
GM Cells --
8.3.The Initial Study by Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) Note continued: 8.3.1.Modern Cytogenetics --
Fluorescence in situ Hybridization [FISH] --
8.3.2.A Priori Hypothesis Tested in Benzene-exposed Workers --
8.3.3.FISH Application in CFU --
GM Progenitor Cells --
8.3.4.Implication of the Initial Findings --
8.4.Chromosome-wide Aneuploidy Study (CWAS) --
8.4.1.OctoChrome-FISH --
8.4.2.Study Subjects Selected in CWAS --
8.5.Findings from the CWAS by Applying OctoChrome FISH --
8.5.1.Loss of Chromosomes (Monosomy) --
8.5.2.Gain of Chromosomes (Trisomy & Tetrasomy) --
8.5.3.Structural Chromosome Abnormality Rates --
8.5.4.Comparison with Other Chemically-induced AML/MDS --
8.6.Mechanistic Relevance of FISH Findings --
8.6.1.Formaldehyde-induced Chromosomal Aneuploidy in Myeloid Progenitor Cells --
8.6.2.Potential Mechanisms of Formaldehyde-induced Aneuploidy --
8.7.Conclusions --
Acknowledgements --
References --
ch. 9 Formaldehyde-associated Brain Tumors / I. Rana --
9.1.The Basics on Brain Tumors --
9.2.Epidemiologic Studies Note continued: 9.2.1.Questionnaire-based Traditional Epidemiology --
9.2.2.Biomarker-based Molecular Epidemiology --
9.3.Epidemiologic Studies of Formaldehyde and Brain Tumors --
9.3.1.Mortality Among Professionals --
9.3.2.Brain Cancer Risk Among Industrial Workers --
9.4.Meta-analysis Approach --
9.4.1.Study Design and Exposure Information --
9.4.2.Summary of Major Findings --
9.4.3.Comparison and Discussion of Both Meta-analyses --
9.5.Summary and Discussion --
Acknowledgements --
References --
ch. 10 Formaldehyde-associated Neurodegenerative Diseases / I. Rana --
10.1.Introduction and Importance --
10.2.Assessment of Neurodegenerative Effects --
10.3.Association Between Formaldehyde Exposure and ALS --
10.3.1.Harvard American Cancer Society Study --
10.3.2.NIEHS Case --
Control Study --
10.3.3.NIOSH/NIEHS Garment Worker Study --
10.3.4.Harvard National Longitudinal Mortality Study --
10.3.5.NIEHS --
Sweden Study --
10.3.6.Harvard --
Danish Study Note continued: 10.4.Formaldehyde and Parkinson\'s Disease, Alzheimer\'s Disease, and Dementia --
10.4.1.Parkinson\'s Disease --
10.4.2.Alzheimer\'s Disease --
10.4.3.Dementia --
10.5.Memory, Learning, and Behavioral Effects of Formaldehyde --
10.5.1.Memory --
10.5.2.Learning --
10.5.3.Formaldehyde-laced Drug Abuse --
10.6.Formaldehyde-induced Neurodegeneration in vivo and in vitro --
10.6.1.Analysis of Neurodegenerative Effects in Animals --
10.6.2.Formaldehyde-induced Alterations in Neural Metabolism --
10.6.3.Potential Mechanisms and Contributors to Neurodegeneration --
10.7.Conclusions and Future Perspectives --
Acknowledgements --
References --
ch. 11 Formaldehyde Toxicity in Children / I. Rana --
11.1.Formaldehyde Exposure in Children --
11.1.1.Routes of Exposure --
11.1.2.Exposure Assessment in Children --
11.1.3.Formaldehyde Exposure from Early-life to Young Adulthood --
11.1.4.Major Day Care Studies --
11.2.Formaldehyde-associated Biomarkers and Health Outcomes Note continued: 11.2.1.Asthma-specific Markers --
11.2.2.Immuno-markers and Adverse Health Outcomes --
11.2.3.Cytogenetic Biomarkers and Associated Health Outcomes --
11.2.4.Childhood Leukemia and Cancer Risk --
11.2.5.Other Adverse Outcomes --
11.2.6.Challenges of Studies in Children --
11.3.Formaldehyde Regulation and Policy for Children --
11.3.1.Formaldehyde Regulation in Children --
11.3.2.Johnson & Johnson\'s Reformulation --
11.4.Burden of Formaldehyde Exposure Related Disease --
11.5.Conclusion --
Acknowledgements --
References --
ch. 12 Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity of Formaldehyde Exposure in Humans --
12.1.Background --
12.2.Evaluation of Human Studies --
12.2.1.Literature Search for Population Studies --
12.2.2.Reproductive Toxicity Studies in Multiple International Cohorts --
12.2.3.Spontaneous Abortion Studies --
12.2.4.Developmental Toxicity Studies --
12.2.5.NIOSH Study --
12.3.Human Study Challenges Note continued: 12.4.Meta-analyses of Reproductive/Developmental Toxicity --
12.4.1.Meta-analysis by Collins et al. --
12.4.2.Novel Approach in Updated Meta-analysis --
12.4.3.Major Findings of the Updated Meta-analysis --
12.4.4.Comparison of Results Between Both Meta-analyses --
12.5.Summary --
Acknowledgements --
References --
ch. 13 Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity of Formaldehyde Exposure in Animals --
13.1.Overview of Experimental Animal Studies --
13.2.Reproductive Toxicity in Experimental Animals --
13.2.1.Reproductive Toxicity in Rats --
13.2.2.Reproductive Toxicity in Mice --
13.2.3.Reproductive Toxicity in Other Animal Models --
13.3.Developmental Toxicity in Animals --
13.3.1.Developmental Toxicity in Rats --
13.3.2.Developmental Toxicity in Mice --
13.3.3.Developmental Toxicity in Other Animal Models --
13.4.Toxicity Studies from Postnatal Exposure --
13.5.Animal Studies in ex vivo and in vitro --
13.6.Summary --
Acknowledgements --
References Note continued: ch. 14 Mechanisms of Action for Formaldehyde-induced Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity --
14.1.Overview of Mechanisms of Toxicity in the Reproductive System --
14.2.Formaldehyde-induced Genotoxicity --
14.3.Formaldehyde-induced Oxidative Stress --
14.4.Alternative Mechanisms of Action --
14.4.1.Roles of Dehydrogenases --
14.4.2.Involvement of Heat Shock Proteins --
14.4.3.Formaldehyde-induced Apoptosis --
14.4.4.Epigenetic Effect of Formaldehyde --
14.4.5.Sex Hormones --
14.4.6.Stress Related Outcomes --
14.5.Reproductive Toxicity Induced by Other Chemicals Compared to Formaldehyde --
14.6.Summary --
Acknowledgements --
References --
ch. 15 Conclusions and Future Directions --
15.1.Formaldehyde Exposure and Regulation --
15.1.1.Exposure Types and Sources --
15.1.2.Exposure Routes in Adults and Children --
15.1.3.Regulation of Formaldehyde Exposure --
15.2.Formaldehyde Toxicities and Potential Mechanisms --
15.2.1.Acute and Chronic Toxicity Note continued: 15.2.2.Genotoxicity --
15.2.3.Hematotoxicity --
15.2.4.Neurotoxicity --
15.2.5.Reproductive Toxicity --
15.3.Adverse Health Effects of Formaldehyde --
15.3.1.Nasopharyngeal and Sinonasa Cancer --
15.3.2.Formaldehyde Associated Leukemias --
15.3.3.Brain Tumors --
15.3.4.Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis --
15.3.5.Health Effects in Children --
15.4.Future Directions of Formaldehyde Research --
15.4.1.Importance and Implication of Formaldehyde Research --
15.4.2.Controversy and Challenges of Formaldehyde Research --
15.4.3.Recommendations Suggested for Future Formaldehyde Research --
15.5.Summary --
Acknowledgements --
References.