Forever Chemicals: Environmental, Economic, and Social Equity Concerns with PFAS in the Environment

Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Foreword
Editors
Contributors
Section I: Social Concerns
	Chapter 1: PFAS: Today and Tomorrow
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 PFAS Terminology
			1.2.1 Linear and Branched Terminology
			1.2.2 PFAS Families
		1.3 PFAS Pathways
		1.4 Policy
		1.5 Remediation
		1.6 Analytical Methods
		1.7 Future Trends
		References
	Chapter 2: Fluorine Free Foams: Transitioning Guide
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 The Evolution of F3 foams
			2.2.1 The Origins of Modern Fluorine Free Firefighting Foams
			2.2.2 The Genesis of Modern High-Performance F3 Foams
		2.3 PFAS and Firefighting Foams
		2.4 Evolving Concerns Regarding C6 PFAS Chemistries
		2.5 Advancing Environmental Regulations
		2.6 Regulations Focussed on Foam Usage
			2.6.1 Europe
			2.6.2 United States
				2.6.2.1 Washington
				2.6.2.2 California
				2.6.2.3 Colorado
				2.6.2.4 Arizona
				2.6.2.5 Virginia
				2.6.2.6 Kentucky
				2.6.2.7 Georgia
				2.6.2.8 New York
				2.6.2.9 Minnesota
				2.6.2.10 Wisconsin
				2.6.2.11 Michigan
			2.6.3 Australia
			2.6.4 Summary of Regulatory Trends
		2.7 Availability and Users of Fluorine Free Firefighting Foam
		2.8 Testing the Effectiveness of Fluorine Free Firefighting Foam
		2.9 Water-Soluble Fuels
		2.10 Environmental Certifications for F3 Foams
			2.10.1 Harmonized Offshore Notification Format
			2.10.2 GreenScreen Certification™
		2.11 AFFF Management and Transition
			2.11.1 Foam Transition
			2.11.2 Cleanout Challenges
			2.11.3 Impact on Fire Water Systems
			2.11.4 Equipment Replacement versus Cleanout and Retain
			2.11.5 Decontamination Case Studies
		2.12 Waste Management
		2.13 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 3: PFASs in Consumer Products: Exposures and Regulatory Approaches
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 A Note On Nomenclature
		3.3 Which PFASs Are Used In Consumer Products?
			3.3.1 Perfluoroalkyl Acids (PFAAs)
			3.3.2 PFAA Precursors
			3.3.3 Fluoropolymers
			3.3.4 Perfluoropolyethers (PFPEs)
			3.3.5 Trends in PFAS Use in Consumer Products
		3.4 From Consumer Products To Human Exposure
			3.4.1 PFASs in Indoor Air
			3.4.2 PFASs in Indoor Dust
			3.4.3 PFASs in Food
			3.4.4 PFASs in Drinking Water
		3.5 PFAS Exposure Determinants
			3.5.1 Exposure Quantification and Exposure Profiles
			3.5.2 Exposure Determinants
		3.6 Regulatory Approaches
			3.6.1 Single Chemical Approach
			3.6.2 Mixture Approach
			3.6.3 Arrowhead or Subclass Approach
			3.6.4 Chemical Class Approach
		3.7 Conclusions
		Acknowledgements
		References
	Chapter 4: Regulatory Implications of PFAS
		4.1 Introduction to the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)
		4.2 The Federal Perspective
		4.3 The States’ Perspective
		4.4 What the Future Holds
		References
	Chapter 5: The Analytical Conundrum
		5.1 Introduction to the Chemistry
		5.2 Method Development Timeline
		5.3 Where the Industry is at Today
		5.4 A Look at Specific Matrices
			5.4.1 Landfill Leachate
			5.4.2 Biosolids
			5.4.3 Air
		5.5 Industry Trends
		5.6 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 6: Landfills as Sources of PFAS Contamination of Soil and Groundwater
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Landfills for Waste Management
		6.3 Accumulation of PFAS in Landfills
		6.4 Leaching of PFAS from Landfills
		6.5 Water and Air Pollution by PFAS
		6.6 Treatment of PFAS in Landfill Leachate
		6.7 Conclusions
		References
Section II: Toxicology and Epidemiology
	Chapter 7: Exposure to PFAS: Biomonitoring Insights
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)
		7.3 Biomonitoring Concentration Profiles
		7.4 Biomonitoring Matrices for Assessing PFAS Exposure
		7.5 Alternative PFAS
		7.6 NHANES Limitations: Relevance of other Biomonitoring Investigations
		Acknowledgement
		Disclaimer
		References
	Chapter 8: State of the Science for Risk Assessment of PFAS at Contaminated Sites
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 General Overview of Fate and Exposures At PFAS Contaminated Sites
		8.3 Human Health Risk Assessment
			8.3.1 Overview of Human Health Effects and Exposures
			8.3.2 Human Health Assessment of PFAS in Drinking Water
			8.3.3 Human Health Assessment of PFAS in the Diet
				8.3.3.1 PFAS Exposure via Fish Consumption
				8.3.3.2 Calculation of Site-specific Fish Tissue Criteria
				8.3.3.3 Other Dietary Exposure Routes – Game, Agriculture, and Homegrown Produce
			8.3.4 Human Health Assessment of PFAS Associated with Other Exposure Pathways
				8.3.4.1 Incidental Soil Ingestion and Dust Inhalation
				8.3.4.2 Dermal Contact with Soils and Water
				8.3.4.3 Vapor Inhalation
		8.4 Ecological Risk Assessment
			8.4.1 Ecological Health Assessment of PFAS for Aquatic Life
			8.4.2 Ecological Health Assessment of PFAS for Aquatic-dependent and Terrestrial Vertebrate Wildlife
			8.4.3 Ecological Health Assessment of PFAS for Soil Life
		8.5 Conclusions
		References
Section III: Remediation
	Chapter 9: Advances in Remediation of PFAS-impacted Waters
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Adsorption
			9.2.1 Activated Carbon
				9.2.1.1 Granular Activated Carbon
				9.2.1.2 Powdered Activated Carbon
				9.2.1.3 Super-fine Powdered Activated Carbon
			9.2.2 Ion Exchange
			9.2.3 Functionalized Adsorbents
		9.3 Separation
			9.3.1 Membrane Treatment
				9.3.1.1 Nanofiltration (NF)
				9.3.1.2 Reverse Osmosis
			9.3.2 Foam Fractionation
		9.4 Destruction
			9.4.1 Thermal Destruction
				9.4.1.1 Incineration
				9.4.1.2 Cement Kilns
			9.4.2 Sonolysis
			9.4.3 Electrochemical Treatment
		References
	Chapter 10: Effectiveness of Point- of-Use/Point-of-Entry Systems to Remove PFAS from Drinking Water
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Methods and Materials
			10.2.1 Test Water Preparation
			10.2.2 Stability Study
			10.2.3 Analytical Methods
			10.2.4 Analytical Sampling Plan
			10.2.5 RO System Design
				10.2.5.1 iSpring RO System
				10.2.5.2 HydroLogic RO System
				10.2.5.3 Flexeon RO System
				10.2.5.4 Booster Pumps
				10.2.5.5 Modifications For Point-of-Entry Use
			10.2.6 RO System Sampling Plan
			10.2.7 GAC System Design
		10.3 Results and Discussion
			10.3.1 RO System Studies
				10.3.1.1 RO #1 Test
				10.3.1.2 RO #2 Test
				10.3.1.3 RO #3 Test
				10.3.1.4 RO Discussion
			10.3.2 GAC Media Studies
				10.3.2.1 GAC #1 Test
				10.3.2.2 GAC #2 Test
				10.3.2.3 GAC Media Discussion
			10.3.3 RO and GAC Residuals Management
		10.4 Modeling of GAC Results
			10.4.1 Parameter Estimation Process
			10.4.2 Pore Surface Diffusion Model
			10.4.3 Application of the Model
		10.5 Conclusions
		Acknowledgments
		References
	Chapter 11: Removing PFAS from Water: From Start to Finish
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Technology Overview: Granular Activated Carbon and Ion Exchange Resin
			11.2.1 Granular Activated Carbon (GAC)
			11.2.2 Ion Exchange Resin (IX)
			11.2.3 Granular Activated Carbon vs. Ion Exchange Resin
		11.3 Predicting Performance
			11.3.1 Piloting Initiatives
			11.3.2 Bench-scale Testing
			11.3.3 Modeling Capabilities
		11.4 Permanent Treatment Solutions
			11.4.1 Permanent GAC Solution Kennebunk, ME
			11.4.2 Permanent IX Solution Stratmoor Hills, CO
		11.5 Rental or Emergency Assets – Municipality in Vermont
		11.6 The New and the Next: Emerging Technology and Applications
		Acknowledgments
		References
	Chapter 12: Rapid Removal of PFAS from Investigation-derived Waste in a Pilot-scale Plasma Reactor
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Materials and Methods
			12.2.1 Chemicals
			12.2.2 Site Selection and Groundwater Collection
			12.2.3 Plasma Reactor
			12.2.4 Experimental Procedures
			12.2.5 Analytical Procedures
		12.3 Results and Discussion
			12.3.1 Initial PFAA Concentrations
			12.3.2 Initial PFAA Precursor Concentrations
			12.3.3 Plasma Treatment of IDW Samples
			12.3.4 Effect of Co-contaminants on PFAS Removal Efficiency
			12.3.5 Energy Requirements of Plasma Treatment for PFOA and PFOS Removal
		Acknowledgments
		References
	Chapter 13: Recent Advances in Oxidation and Reduction Processes for Treatment of PFAS in Water
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Advanced Oxidations
			13.2.1 Activated Persulfate
			13.2.2 Electrochemical Oxidation
			13.2.3 Ultrasonication
		13.3 Chemical Reduction
		13.4 Advanced Reductions
			13.4.1 Examined ARPs
			13.4.2 Reaction Mechanism
			13.4.3 Structure−Reactivity Relationship
		13.5 Impact of Environmental and Operational Parameters ON ARPs
			13.5.1 Dissolved Oxygen
			13.5.2 Dissolved Organic Matter and NO 3 −
			13.5.3 Water pH
			13.5.4 Operational Parameters: Sensitizer Concentration
		13.6 Plasma Technologies
		13.7 Full-Scale Considerations
			13.7.1 Removal of PFAS During Conventional Full-Scale Treatments
			13.7.2 Specific Applications: Treating Concentrated Waste Streams
		13.8 Summary and Conclusions
			13.8.1 Oxidation Processes
			13.8.2 Reduction Processes
		References
	Chapter 14: Novel Cyclodextrin Polymer Adsorbents for PFAS Removal
		14.1 Properties of DEXSORB+® A Novel Mesoporous β-Cyclodextrin Adsorbent
			14.1.1 Structure
			14.1.2 Surface Area, Porosity, Density and Particle Size
			14.1.3 Swelling
			14.1.4 Material Stability
			14.1.5 Regeneration
		14.2 PFAS Adsorption Mechanisms
			14.2.1 Kinetics
			14.2.2 Thermodynamics
			14.2.3 Hydrophobic and Electrostatic Interactions
		14.3 PFAS Uptake in Real Water Matrices
			14.3.1 Batch Uptake
			14.3.2 Packed-Bed Filtration
				14.3.2.1 Rapid Small-Scale Column Tests
				14.3.2.2 Pilot-Scale Column Tests
		14.4 Potential Effects of Water Matrices
			14.4.1 Suspended Solids
			14.4.2 Ionic Strength
			14.4.3 Natural Organic Matter
			14.4.4 pH
		14.5 Cyclodextrin Polymer Operation Cycles
			14.5.1 Loading of Fresh Adsorbents
			14.5.2 Regeneration of Exhausted Adsorbents
			14.5.3 Reuse of Regenerated Adsorbents
			14.5.4 Destruction of PFAS Concentrate
		14.6 Adsorption Treatment Applications
			14.6.1 Batch Adsorption Followed by Ultrafiltration
				14.6.1.1 Preparation of Powdered Adsorbent
				14.6.1.2 Hydraulic Residence Time
				14.6.1.3 Filtration of Adsorbent
			14.6.2 Packed-bed Filtration
				14.6.2.1 Preparation of Granular Adsorbent
				14.6.2.2 Pretreatment Considerations
				14.6.2.3 Hydraulic Conditions
				14.6.2.4 Fixed or Backwashable Bed
				14.6.2.5 Regeneration and Concentrate Destruction
			14.6.3 Others
				14.6.3.1 Batch Adsorption Followed by Coagulation and Flocculation
				14.6.3.2 Small Drinking Water Systems
		14.7 Summary
		References
	Chapter 15: Modeling Water Treatment Performance and Costs for Removal of PFAS from Drinking Water
		15.1 Introduction
			15.1.1 High-Pressure Membrane Systems
			15.1.2 Anion Exchange Resins
			15.1.3 Granular Activated Carbon (GAC)
		15.2 Modeling PFAS Removal with GAC
			15.2.1 Parameters
			15.2.2 Parameter Determination
			15.2.3 Modeling Full-scale Systems
			15.2.4 Specific Throughput
			15.2.5 Case Study: Short Bed Contactors
			15.2.6 Case Study: Assessing Designs for Future Needs
		15.3 Cost Modeling
			15.3.1 Work Breakdown Structure Model
			15.3.2 DoD Costing Example
		15.4 Conclusions
		15.5 Software Information
		Acknowledgments
		References
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	Z