Food Waste Conversion (Methods and Protocols in Food Science)

Preface to the Series
Preface
Contents
Contributors
Part I: Summary and Literature Review on Value-Added Bioactive Compounds from Food Waste Valorization
	Chapter 1: Bioactive Compounds from Food and Its By-products: Current Applications and Future Perspectives
		1 Introduction
		2 Bioactive Compounds in Foods and Food By-products
			2.1 Phenolic Compounds
			2.2 Terpenoids
			2.3 Alkaloids and Xanthine Alkaloids
			2.4 Saponins
			2.5 Glucosinolates
		3 Bioactivities of Natural Compounds from Food and Food By-products
			3.1 Antioxidant Activity
			3.2 Anti-inflammatory Activity
			3.3 Antiaging Activity
			3.4 Antiproliferative Activity
			3.5 Antimicrobial Activity
		4 Applications of FBC
			4.1 Pharmaceutical Products
				4.1.1 Metabolic Syndrome and Diabetes
				4.1.2 Cardiovascular Diseases
				4.1.3 Neurological Diseases
				4.1.4 Cancer
			4.2 Cosmetic Products
			4.3 Food Products and Food Packaging
		5 Green Approaches for the Recovery of BC from Food Industry By-products and Residues
		6 Current and Future Perspectives Regarding the Recovery and Application of BC from Food and Agro-industrial Food Waste
		7 Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 2: Food Waste Management Method Through 3R Concept
		1 Introduction
		2 The 3R Actions Are Applied to Waste Management in the Citrus Industry
		3 Conclusion
		References
Part II: Physico-chemical and Thermochemical Treatments for Food Waste Exploitation
	Chapter 3: Microencapsulation of Bioactive Compounds from Agro-industrial Waste
		1 Introduction: Importance of the Use of Agro-industrial Wastes
		2 Materials
			2.1 Plant Materials
			2.2 Matrices
			2.3 Solutions
			2.4 Specialized Equipment
		3 Methods
			3.1 Obtaining Extracts from Agro-industrial Wastes
			3.2 Selection of the Best Encapsulation Matrix
			3.3 Selection of the Best Encapsulation Conditions
		4 Notes
		References
	Chapter 4: Sustainable Extraction of Flavonoids from Agricultural Biomass and Agro-industrial By-products: Natural Deep Eutect...
		1 Introduction
		2 Materials
			2.1 General Considerations and Safety Practices
			2.2 Synthesis of NaDES
			2.3 Extraction of Flavonoids
			2.4 Analysis by Chromatographic Methods
				2.4.1 Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry and Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Photodiode Array Detector
		3 Methods
			3.1 Synthesis of NaDES
				3.1.1 Choline Chloride Conditioning (HBA)
				3.1.2 Synthesis
			3.2 Extraction for Phytochemicals
				3.2.1 Conditioning of Plant Material
				3.2.2 Extraction
			3.3 Analysis of Flavonoids by Chromatographic Methods
				3.3.1 Separation by UPLC
				3.3.2 Separation by UPLC-MS/MS
		4 Notes
		References
	Chapter 5: Protocol for the Extraction of Lignin from Brewer´s Spent Grain Using Deep Eutectic Solvents
		1 Introduction
		2 Materials
			2.1 Raw Material
			2.2 DES Preparation
			2.3 Biomass Pretreatment
		3 Lignin Recovery
		4 Methods
			4.1 Raw Material Preparation
			4.2 DES Preparation
			4.3 Biomass Pretreatment
			4.4 Lignin Recovery
		5 Notes
		References
	Chapter 6: Protocol for Antioxidant Dietary Fiber Determination: Structural Characterization and Quantification
		1 Introduction: Antioxidant Dietary Fiber
			1.1 Overview of the Procedure
		2 Materials
			2.1 Pretreatment of Sample
			2.2 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
			2.3 Separation, Obtainment, and Washing of Soluble (SDF) from Insoluble Dietary Fiber (IDF)
			2.4 Fiber Profile Determination
		3 Methods
			3.1 Pretreatments of Sample
			3.2 Enzymatic Hydrolyses (AOAC Method 991.43 (1990))
			3.3 SDF and IDF Obtaining
			3.4 Fiber Profile Determination
		4 Notes
		References
	Chapter 7: Use of Ultrasound Technology for Food Waste Breakdown
		1 Introduction
		2 Material
			2.1 Equipment and Reagents
			2.2 Selection of Plant Material
			2.3 Preparation of Plant Material
		3 Methods
			3.1 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE) for by-Products and Other Wastes
			3.2 Evaluation of the Metabolites Obtained
			3.3 Yields and Decomposition of Food Wastes
			3.4 Structural Changes Induced by UAE
			3.5 Reduction and Revalorization of Food Wastes
		4 Notes: Prospects for Ultrasound Technology
		References
	Chapter 8: Integrated Biorefinery Strategy for Orange Juice By-products Valorization: A Sustainable Protocol to Obtain Bioacti...
		1 Introduction
		2 Experimental Protocol for Biorefinery Process to Orange Juice By-products
			2.1 Material
			2.2 Raw Material
			2.3 Essential Oils Extraction by Steam Distillation
			2.4 Hesperidin-Rich Polyphenol Extract by Microwave Hydrodiffusion and Gravity (MHG)
			2.5 Pectin Extraction by Sustainable Hot Acid Extraction
		3 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 9: Energy Integration of the Hydrothermal Pretreatment of Food Waste in Terms of a Sustainable Biorefinery
		1 Introduction
		2 Food Waste and Bioenergy Production
			2.1 Food Waste
			2.2 Bioenergy Production
		3 Biorefinery Concept: Food Waste Biorefinery
			3.1 Biorefinery
			3.2 Food Waste Biorefinery
		4 Hydrothermal Pretreatment and Energy Integration
			4.1 Hydrothermal Pretreatment
			4.2 Energy Integration
		5 Energy Balance
			5.1 Energy Efficiency
			5.2 Input and Output Energy
			5.3 Calculation Procedure
				5.3.1 Input Energy
				5.3.2 Output Energy
				5.3.3 Energy Efficiency and Other Indices for the Process Energy Balance
		6 Conclusions
		References
Part III: Food Waste as a Carbon Source for Fungi Based Processes: Bioactives Obtention and Releasement
	Chapter 10: Solid-State Fermentation as Strategy for Food Waste Transformation
		1 Introduction
		2 Materials
		3 Methods
			3.1 Conditioning of the Substrate
				3.1.1 Drying
				3.1.2 Grinding and Sieving
				3.1.3 Storage
			3.2 Inoculum Preparation
		4 Humidity Setting
		5 Fermentation Setup
		References
	Chapter 11: Protocol for the Solid-State Fermentation-Assisted Extraction (SSFAE) of Bioactives from Tomato Waste: The Case of...
		1 Introduction
		2 Materials
			2.1 Raw Material
			2.2 Microorganism
			2.3 Solid-State Fermentation
			2.4 Recovery of Carotenoids
			2.5 Analysis of Carotenoids
		3 Methods
			3.1 Processing of the Raw Material
			3.2 Test for Support
			3.3 Solid-State Fermentation
			3.4 Quantification of Carotenoids
		4 Notes
		References
	Chapter 12: Protocol for the Production of Trichoderma Spores for Use as a Biological Control Agent Through the Revalorization...
		1 Introduction
		2 Materials
			2.1 Raw Material
			2.2 Microorganism
			2.3 Tests for the Use of Agro-Industrial Residues as Support for SSF
			2.4 Preparation of SSF for Trichoderma sp. Spore Production
		3 Methodology
			3.1 Raw Material Pretreatment
			3.2 Tests for the Use of Agro-industrial Residues as Support for SSF
				3.2.1 WAI Determination
				3.2.2 CHP Determination
				3.2.3 pH Determination
			3.3 Evaluation of the Adaptation Capacity of the Trichoderma sp. Strain to the Substrate
			3.4 Preparation of SSF for Trichoderma sp. Spore Production
		4 Notes
		References
	Chapter 13: Submerged Fermentation as a Strategy for the Valorization of Fish By-products to Obtain High-Protein Meals
		1 Introduction
		2 Materials
			2.1 Starters
			2.2 Fermentation Process
			2.3 Reagents of TNBS Method
			2.4 Lipolytic Activity
		3 Methods
			3.1 Paste Oil Extraction
			3.2 Paste Drying
			3.3 Fat Content
			3.4 Lipolytic Activity in a Solid Substrate
			3.5 Lipolytic Activity in Liquid Substrate
			3.6 Determination of α-Amino Acid
			3.7 Determination of Degree of Protein Hydrolysis
		4 Notes
		References
	Chapter 14: Monitoring Methods for Anaerobic Digestion of Food Waste: Physicochemical and Molecular Analysis
		1 Introduction
		2 Materials
			2.1 Physicochemical Analysis
				2.1.1 Total Solids (TSs) [5]
				2.1.2 Total Suspended Solids (TSSs) at 103-105 C
				2.1.3 Fixed Solids and Volatile Solids (FSs and VSs), Ignited at 550 C
				2.1.4 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
				2.1.5 Alkalinity
				2.1.6 Total Volatile Fatty Acids (Total VFAs)
				2.1.7 Volatile Fatty Acids Profile and Quantification
				2.1.8 Methane Measurement
			2.2 Enzymatic Assays
				2.2.1 Amylase
				2.2.2 Exoglucanase
				2.2.3 Endoglucanase
				2.2.4 Cellobiase
				2.2.5 Lipase
				2.2.6 Chitinase
				2.2.7 Xylanase
				2.2.8 Protease
				2.2.9 Pullulanase [14, 15 ]
				2.2.10 Benzoyl-CoA Reductase
				2.2.11 Phloroglucinol Reductase
				2.2.12 Resorcinol Reductase
				2.2.13 Resorcinol Hydrolase
			2.3 Metagenomics
				2.3.1 Sample Preparation
				2.3.2 DNA Extraction
				2.3.3 16S Amplicon
				2.3.4 Library Preparation
				2.3.5 Sequencing Preparation
					Equipment
			2.4 Gene Expression
				2.4.1 Sample Preparation
				2.4.2 RNA Extraction [23, 24 ]
				2.4.3 qRT-PCR for Relative Expression of mcrA Gene
				2.4.4 Equipment
			2.5 Proteomics
				2.5.1 SDS-Page
				2.5.2 2D-Page
				2.5.3 Mass Spectrometry
				2.5.4 Equipment
		3 Methods
			3.1 Physicochemical
				3.1.1 Total Solids
				3.1.2 Total Suspended Solids (TSS) at 103-105 C [5]
				3.1.3 Fixed Solids and Volatile Solids (FSs and VSs), Ignited at 550 C
				3.1.4 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
				3.1.5 Alkalinity
					Color Change
					Potentiometric Titration Curve
					Potentiometric Titration to Preselected pH
					Potentiometric Titration of Low Alkalinity
					For Potentiometric Titration to Endpoint pH
					For Potentiometric Titration of Low Alkalinity
				3.1.6 Total Volatile Fatty Acids (VFAs)
				3.1.7 Volatile Fatty Acids Profile and Quantification
				3.1.8 Methane Measurement
				3.1.9 Enzymatic Assays Amylase
				3.1.10 Exoglucanase
				3.1.11 Endoglucanase
				3.1.12 Cellobiase
				3.1.13 Lipase
				3.1.14 Chitinase
				3.1.15 Xylanase
				3.1.16 Protease
				3.1.17 Pullulanases [14, 15 ]
				3.1.18 Benzoyl-CoA Reductase
				3.1.19 Phloroglucinol Reductase
				3.1.20 Resorcinol Reductase
				3.1.21 Resorcinol Hydrolase
			3.2 Metagenomics
				3.2.1 Sample Preparation for DNA Extraction
				3.2.2 Enzymatic Disruption of DNA Extraction
				3.2.3 16S rRNA Amplicon [22]
					PCR
				3.2.4 16S rRNA Library Preparation
				3.2.5 Quantification, Normalization, and Pooling
					Sequencing Preparation
					DNA Denaturation
					Denature and Dilution of PhiX Control
					Combine Amplicon Library and PhiX Control
					Running Sequencing on Illumina´s MiSeq Platform
					Bioinformatic 16S Amplicon Metagenomic Analysis Pipelines
			3.3 Gene Expression of mcrA
				3.3.1 Sample Preparation for RNA Extraction
				3.3.2 Physicochemical Cell Disruption for RNA Extraction
				3.3.3 RNA Isolation [23, 24 ]
				3.3.4 Gene Expression of mcrA with qRT-RNA
					Reverse Transcription [23, 24 ]
					Real-Time PCR
					Quantification and Interpretation
			3.4 Proteomics
				3.4.1 Sample Extraction and Quantification
				3.4.2 SDS-Page
				3.4.3 1D-Page
				3.4.4 2D-Page
				3.4.5 Gel Staining
				3.4.6 LC-MS/MS
				3.4.7 Bioinformatic Analysis of LC-MS/MS
		4 Notes
		References
Index