Food Safety: Contaminants and Risk Assessment

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
List of Contributors
Editors
1 An Introduction to Food Safety and Its Impact on Human Health
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Contaminants of Food and Their Deleterious Effects
		1.2.1 Physical Contaminants of Food and Their Detrimental Effects
		1.2.2 Chemical Contaminants of Food and Their Detrimental Effects
		1.2.3 Biological Contaminants
			1.2.3.1 Bacteria
			1.2.3.2 Fungi
			1.2.3.3 Viruses
			1.2.3.4 Parasites
	1.3 Risk Assessment
		1.3.1 Hazard Identification
			1.3.1.1 Exposure Assessment
			1.3.1.2 Risk Characterization
		1.3.2 Risk Management
			1.3.2.1 Preliminary Risk Management Activities
			1.3.2.2 Evaluation of Risk Management Options
			1.3.2.3 Implementation of the Risk Management Decision
			1.3.2.4 Monitoring and Reviewing
		1.3.3 Risk Communication
	1.4 Improvement of Strategies for Risk Reduction – the Future Pathway
	1.5 Conclusion
	References
2 Pesticides in Food Production Systems: the Situation in the Eu
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Pesticides in Food Production Systems
		2.2.1 Pesticides in the Eu and Food Safety
		2.2.2 the Perceptions of Farmers and Consumers Regarding Pesticides
	2.3 Impact of Pesticides on Consumer Safety – Dietary Exposure
		2.3.1 Dietary Risk Assessments for Pesticides
		2.3.2 Establishment of Tolerances
		2.3.3 Monitoring of Pesticide Residue Data in Food Commodities
		2.3.4 Analytical Methods
	2.4 Impact of Pesticides on Farmers, Bystanders, and Non-target Organisms
		2.4.1 Non-dietary Exposure of Humans
		2.4.2 Non-target Organisms
	2.5 Safe and Sustainable Use of Pesticides – from the Directive 2009/128/ec to a New Regulation
	2.6 Conclusion
	References
3 Food Allergen Risks in Genetically Modified Foods: Current Approaches
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Genetically Modified Food Technology
	3.3 Food Allergens and Food Allergies
		3.3.1 IGE-mediated Reaction
		3.3.2 Non-IGE-mediated Reaction
	3.4 Food Allergens in Genetically Modified Foods
	3.5 Conclusion
	References
4 Food Contamination in Milk and Dairy Products
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Contamination in Milk and Dairy Products
		4.2.1 Chemical Contaminants
			4.2.1.1 Antibiotics
			4.2.1.2 Pesticides
			4.2.1.3 Heavy Metals
			4.2.1.4 Mycotoxins
		4.2.2 Microbial Contamination
			4.2.2.1 Spoilages
			4.2.2.2 Milk-borne Pathogens
	4.3 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
5 Food Contaminants in Meat and Meat Products
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Food Contamination
		5.2.1 Types of Contamination in Meat
			5.2.1.1 Physical Contamination
			5.2.1.2 Chemical Contamination
			5.2.1.3 Biological Contamination
	5.3 Food Contaminants
		5.3.1 Common Contaminants in Meat Products
		5.3.2 Seafood Contaminants
			5.3.2.1 Types of Shellfish Poisoning and Symptoms
	5.4 Prevention
		5.4.1 Gmp Implementation
		5.4.2 Storage
		5.4.3 Plant Design and Production Flow
		5.4.4 Cleaning and Sanitation
		5.4.5 Training
	5.5 Decontamination of Meat Products
		5.5.1 Non-thermal Technologies
			5.5.1.1 Irradiation
			5.5.1.2 High Hydrostatic Pressure (hhp)
			5.5.1.3 Biopreservation and Natural Antimicrobials
			5.5.1.4 Active Packaging
		5.5.2 Thermal Alternative Technologies
			5.5.2.1 High Frequency Heating
			5.5.2.2 Ohmic Heating
			5.5.2.3 Steam Pasteurization
	5.6 Conclusion
	References
6 Food Contaminants in Poultry and Eggs
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Contaminants in Poultry and Poultry Products
		6.2.1 Veterinary Drugs and Their Residues
		6.2.2 Toxic Elements
		6.2.3 Heavy Metals
		6.2.4 Radioactive Substances
		6.2.5 Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
		6.2.6 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
		6.2.7 Phthalates
		6.2.8 Microbial Contamination
		6.2.9 Other Contaminants
	6.3 Detection of Contaminants
		6.3.1 Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (QPCR)
		6.3.2 High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
		6.3.3 Immunomagnetic Separation (IMS)
		6.3.4 Immunosensors
		6.3.5 Array-based Method
	6.4 Mitigation Strategy for Contaminants in Poultry Meat and Products
		6.4.1 Chemical Decontamination
			6.4.1.1 Organic Acid and Buffered Lactate Dips or Sprays
			6.4.1.2 Is Peroxyacetic Acid (PAA) Effective for Reducing Microbial Contamination of Poultry?
			6.4.1.3 Phosphates and Mixtures
			6.4.1.4 Ozone (O3) Decontamination of Poultry Meat
		6.4.2 Physical Decontamination
			6.4.2.1 Ionizing Radiation
			6.4.2.2 Decontamination of Poultry by High Pressure Processing
			6.4.2.3 Steam Pasteurizationtm System (SPS)
			6.4.2.4 Pulsed Ultraviolet (UV) Light
		6.4.3 Egg Production
	6.5 Risk Assessment of Contamination
		6.5.1 Microbiological Risk Assessment (MRA)
		6.5.2 Risk Categorization of Salmonella in Eggs
		6.5.3 Risk Classification of Salmonella in Broiler Chickens
	6.6 Conclusion
	6.7 Future Trends
	References
7 Food Contaminants in Seafood
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Types of Contaminants in Seafood
		7.2.1 Biological Contamination
			7.2.1.1 Pathogenic Bacteria
			7.2.1.2 Marine Biotoxins
			7.2.1.3 Viruses
		7.2.2 Chemical Contamination
			7.2.2.1 Pesticide Residues
			7.2.2.2 Heavy Metals
			7.2.2.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
			7.2.2.4 Organophosphate Esters
		7.2.3 Physical Contamination
			7.2.3.1 Microplastics
			7.2.3.2 Radioactive Contaminants
		7.2.4 Cross-contamination
	7.3 Control of Contaminants
		7.3.1 Quality Control of Raw Materials
		7.3.2 Process Control
			7.3.2.1 Production and Processing
			7.3.2.2 Transportation and Storage
		7.3.3 Detection and Monitoring
			7.3.3.1 Detection of Chemical Contaminants
			7.3.3.2 Detection of Biological Contaminants
			7.3.3.3 Detection of Physical Contaminants
	7.4 Conclusions
	References
8 Food Contaminants in Fruits and Vegetables
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Wild Bird- and Animal-derived Contaminants in Fresh Produce
	8.3 Farming- and Industry-derived Contaminants in Fresh Produce
	8.4 Natural and Anthropogenic Contaminants in Fresh Produce
	8.5 Microbiological Contaminants in Fresh Produce
		8.5.1 Bacteria-related Contaminants in Fresh Produce
		8.5.2 Parasite-related Contaminants in Fresh Produce
		8.5.3 Pathogenic Virus-related Contaminants in Fresh Produce
		8.5.4 Mold- and Mycotoxin-related Contaminants in Fresh Produce
	8.6 Chemical Contaminants in Fresh Produce
		8.6.1 Agrochemical Contaminants in Fresh Produce
			I) Pesticides
			II) Fungicides
			III) Herbicides
		8.6.2 Natural Toxin-related Contaminants in Fresh Produce
			8.6.2.1 Mycotoxins
			8.6.2.2 Natural Toxins
			8.6.2.3 Natural Radionuclides in Fresh Produce
		8.6.3 Heavy Metal-related Contaminants in Fresh Produce
	8.7 Physical Hazards in Fresh Produce
	8.8 Conclusion
	References
9 Contaminants Found in Non-alcoholic Fermented Cereal-based Beverages
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Non-alcoholic Fermented Cereal-based Beverages
		9.2.1 Non-alcoholic Fermented Cereal-based Beverages from Africa
		9.2.2 Non-alcoholic Fermented Cereal-based Beverages from Asia
		9.2.3 Non-alcoholic Fermented Cereal-based Beverages from Europe
		9.2.4 Non-alcoholic Fermented Cereal-based Beverages from the United States
	9.3 Contaminants Found in Non-alcoholic Fermented Cereal-based Beverages
		9.3.1 Chemical Contaminants
			9.3.1.1 Mycotoxins
			9.3.1.2 Heavy Metals
			9.3.1.3 Biogenic Amines
			9.3.1.4 Pesticides
		9.3.2 Biological Contaminants
		9.3.3 Physical Contaminants
	9.4 Health Risks Associated with Contaminants Exposure When Consuming Non-alcoholic Fermented Cereal-based Beverages
	9.5 Methods to Reduce the Contaminants in Non-alcoholic Fermented Cereal-based Beverages
	9.6 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
10 Food Additives/preservatives and Their Implications for Human Health
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Core Function and Principles
	10.3 Types and Classes
	10.4 Numbering
	10.5 Establishment of an Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI)
	10.6 Health Implications
		10.6.1 Preservatives
			10.6.1.1 Antimicrobial Agents
			10.6.1.2 Antioxidants
			10.6.1.3 Anti-browning Agents
		10.6.2 Nutritional Additives
		10.6.3 Coloring Agents
			10.6.3.1 Azo Compounds
			10.6.3.2 Chinophthalon Derivatives
			10.6.3.3 Triarylmethane Group
			10.6.3.4 Xanthenes Group
			10.6.3.5 Indigo Colorants
		10.6.4 Flavoring Agents
			10.6.4.1 Sweeteners
			10.6.4.2 Synthetic Flavors
			10.6.4.3 Flavor Enhancers
		10.6.5 Texturizing Agents
			10.6.5.1 Emulsifiers
			10.6.5.2 Stabilizers
			10.6.5.3 Thickeners
			10.6.5.4 Bulking Agents
	10.7 Banned Additives
	10.8 Natural Additives
		10.8.1 Antimicrobials
		10.8.2 Antioxidants
		10.8.3 Flavors
		10.8.4 Colors
		10.8.5 Sweeteners
	10.9 Actionable Recommendations
	10.10 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
11 Viral Contamination in Food and Beverage Processing
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Foodborne Viral Infections
	11.3 Important Foodborne Viruses
	11.4 Factors Affecting the Growth of Viruses in Food
	11.5 Detection of Food- and Waterborne Viruses
	11.6 Effects of Processing Technologies on Virus Control
		11.6.1 Altering the Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors
		11.6.2 Antiviral Additives
		11.6.3 Heat Treatment
		11.6.4 High Pressure Processing
		11.6.5 Irradiation
		11.6.6 UV Treatment
		11.6.7 Chemical Treatments
	11.7 Emerging Viruses in Thermally Processed Foods
	11.8 Emerging Viruses in Fermented Foods
	11.9 Biosensors for the Detection of Viruses
	11.10 Prevalence of Viral Contamination in Food Products
	11.11 Future Perspectives for the Detection and Control of Viruses
	11.12 Conclusion
	References
12 Food Contamination by Microplastics and Human Health Implications
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Microplastic Characterization
	12.3 Plastic Particle Dynamics in the Aquatic Environment
	12.4 Microplastic Concentration in Commercially Important Aquatic Organisms
		12.4.1 Primary Producers
		12.4.2 Consumers
		12.4.3 Fish
		12.4.4 Non-conventional Fish Products Consumed
	12.5 Microplastic Concentration in Other Food Sources
		12.5.1 Terrestrial Distribution of Microplastic
		12.5.2 Microplastic in Foodstuffs, Except Seafood
	12.6 Food Consumption as a Route of Human Contamination and the Impact on Population Health
	12.7 Conclusion
	References
13 Health Risk Assessment of Chloropropanols in Processed Foods
	13.1 General Information on Chloropropanols in Processed Food Products
		13.1.1 Toxicological Effect and Regulatory Limits of Chloropropanols
	13.2 Assessment of Published Literature
		13.2.1 Traction Analysis of Recent Published Scientific Studies
		13.2.2 Detection Methods of Chloropropanols in Processed Foods
	13.3 3-MCPD, 2-MCPD, and Glycidol Occurrences in Different Food Products
	13.4 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Index