Flowering and its Manipulation (Annual Plant Reviews, Volume 20)

Flowering and its Manipulation......Page 1
Contents......Page 7
Contributors......Page 15
Preface......Page 17
Part I: Core development and genetics......Page 19
1.1 Introduction......Page 21
1.2 What is a flower?......Page 22
1.3 Phylogenetic and paleontological context......Page 23
1.4.1 Bisexuality......Page 24
1.4.3 Perianth......Page 25
1.5 Ordering the key steps in floral evolution......Page 26
1.6.1 Position and identity of the reproductive organs......Page 27
1.6.2 Developmental regulation of the perianth......Page 31
1.7 Models for the origin of bisexuality......Page 32
1.8 Apical megasporophyll production on a microsporangiate axis?......Page 34
1.9 The compression of the floral axis......Page 36
1.10 The evolution of the perianth......Page 37
1.11 The origin of a dimorphic perianth......Page 38
1.12 Conclusion......Page 39
References......Page 40
2.2 Floral transition is marked by developmental phase changes......Page 46
2.3 Floral induction is mediated through multiple pathways......Page 48
2.4.1 Photoreceptors transduce light signals......Page 49
2.4.3 Key genes integrate photoperiodic induction......Page 50
2.4.4 CO and FT gene function is conserved in other plant species......Page 52
2.4.5 Photoperiod induction through CO-independent pathways......Page 53
2.5.1 FLOWERING LOCUS C integrates different floral inductive pathways......Page 54
2.6.1 Mediation of vernalization in Arabidopsis by FLC repression......Page 56
2.6.2 Vernalization in cereals......Page 58
2.7.1 Nutrient diversion theory of floral induction......Page 59
2.7.2 Gibberellin......Page 60
2.7.3 Long-distance floral inductive signals......Page 62
2.7.4.3 Conservation of LFY function in higher plants......Page 63
References......Page 64
3.2 The ABC model of floral organ identity......Page 67
3.2.1 The major genetic players in the ABC model......Page 68
3.2.2 Members of the MADS-box transcription factor family......Page 69
3.2.2.1 Redundant and complex functions among\rthe floral MIKC MADS-box genes......Page 71
3.2.3 Members of the AP2/EREBP transcription factor family......Page 73
3.3 Regulating the expression of the floral organ identity genes......Page 74
3.4.1 Floral organ identity gene function in Petunia......Page 76
3.4.2 Floral organ identity gene function in Oryza......Page 78
3.5 Sex determination as a modification of floral organ identity......Page 80
3.6 Future perspectives......Page 81
References......Page 82
4.1 Introduction......Page 89
4.2 Flower primordium outgrowth......Page 91
4.3 Regulating flower meristem size......Page 92
4.3.1 Cell–cell communication, pattern formation in the meristem and\rmeristem size......Page 93
4.3.2 Cellular factors regulating floral meristem development......Page 95
4.4 Early control of organogenesis in the flower......Page 97
4.5 Generating organ boundaries......Page 100
4.6 Floral organ size......Page 102
4.7.1 Floral determinacy......Page 104
4.8 Dorsoventral symmetry......Page 106
4.8.1 Petal asymmetry and contort aestivation......Page 108
4.9 Outlook: to boldly go where no one has gone before . . .......Page 109
References......Page 110
5.2 Inflorescence typologies......Page 116
5.3.1 Inflorescence meristem......Page 122
5.3.2 Regulating determinacy......Page 123
5.4.1 Teosinte......Page 126
5.4.2 Cauliflower and Broccoli......Page 127
5.4.3 Phenotypic plasticity......Page 128
References......Page 129
Part II: Specialised components of development......Page 133
6.1 Introduction......Page 135
6.2.1 Evolution of diverse reproductive strategies in land plants......Page 136
6.2.3 Flexibility in sex ratios in monoecious plants......Page 137
6.2.5 The andromonoecious option: more compromises?......Page 139
6.3.1 Structural differences between male and female flowers......Page 140
6.3.2.1 Development of the male and female florets......Page 141
6.3.2.2 Mutations that affect stamen development: role of gibberellin......Page 142
6.3.2.3 Mutations that affect pistil abortion......Page 144
6.3.2.4 Cytokinin counteracts pistil abortion......Page 145
6.3.2.5 Conservation of the maize sex determination pathway in other species......Page 146
6.3.3.2 Sex expression in the cucumber bud and along the shoot......Page 147
6.3.3.3 Inheritance of sex in cucumber......Page 148
6.3.3.4 Environmental and hormonal regulation of sex expression......Page 149
6.3.3.5 A model for cucumber sex expression......Page 150
6.3.3.6 Molecular studies on ethylene-synthesis and\rperception genes in Cucumis......Page 152
6.3.3.7 Search for ‘effector genes’ that carry out the developmental program\rfollowing sex determination......Page 156
6.4 Concluding remarks......Page 159
References......Page 160
7.2 Pioneering work in plant sexuality and hybridisation......Page 165
7.3 Early studies of CMS......Page 166
7.4 Definition of CMS as a system with two genetic determinants......Page 167
7.5 Use of CMS in hybrid seed production......Page 168
7.6 The search for CMS: intraspecific crosses, alloplasmic\rsituations and cybrids......Page 171
7.7 Spontaneous CMSs result from genomic conflict between nuclear\rand cytoplasmic genes......Page 174
7.8.1 The Texas story......Page 177
7.8.2 Identification of CMS genes......Page 179
7.8.3 The mechanisms underlying male sterility......Page 182
7.8.4 Nuclear restorers and mechanisms of restoration to fertility......Page 184
7.9 Conclusion and prospects......Page 186
References......Page 188
8.2 The importance of perenniality......Page 199
8.3 Flowering in the context of perenniality......Page 200
8.4.1 The Ravenelle wallflower – timing is everything......Page 201
8.4.2 Arabidopsis and its perennial relatives – timing with\ra spatial dimension......Page 203
8.4.3 Apple – the mystery of the bourse......Page 206
8.4.4 Strawberry – an overwintering crown and a summer of\renvironmental sensing......Page 207
8.4.5 Perennial grasses, leafy spurge – cryptophytes where the\rrhizome is crucial......Page 209
8.5 Conclusion......Page 212
References......Page 213
Part III: A developmental genetic model for the origin of the flower......Page 217
9.1 Introduction......Page 219
9.3.1 Betalains......Page 220
9.3.2 Carotenoids......Page 223
9.4 Anthocyanin structure and flower colour......Page 225
9.5 Complexity of blue flowers......Page 226
9.6.1 Phenylpropanoid pathway......Page 228
9.6.4 Dihydroflavonols to flavonols......Page 230
9.6.6 Modification of anthocyanins......Page 231
9.6.7 Transcriptional regulation......Page 233
9.7 Flower colour and mutations......Page 234
9.7.2 Ipomoea......Page 235
9.8 Evolutionary aspects of structural genes in the flavonoid pathway......Page 236
9.9 Genetic engineering of flower colour......Page 240
9.9.1 Petunia......Page 241
9.9.2 Torenia......Page 243
9.9.3 Carnations......Page 244
9.9.4 Roses......Page 245
9.9.5 Chrysanthemums......Page 246
9.9.7 Challenges to generate yellow flowers......Page 247
9.10 Concluding remarks......Page 248
References......Page 249
10.2 Biological functions of floral scents......Page 258
10.3 Biosynthesis of floral volatiles......Page 259
10.3.1 Terpenes......Page 260
10.3.2 Phenylpropanoids/benzenoids......Page 263
10.4 Genes responsible for scent production......Page 264
10.5 Regulation of floral scent accumulation and emission......Page 265
10.6 Genetic engineering of floral scent......Page 268
References......Page 270
Part IV: Senescence......Page 277
11.1 Why senesce?......Page 279
11.2.1 Patterns of senescence......Page 281
11.3.1 Mechanisms controlling senescence and/or abscission......Page 282
11.3.2.1 Vascular blockage......Page 283
11.3.4 Carbohydrates......Page 284
11.3.5.2 Cytokinin and gibberellin......Page 287
11.3.5.3 Other plant growth regulators......Page 288
11.4 The molecular basis of senescence......Page 290
11.5 Molecular events characterising floral senescence......Page 296
11.6 Autophagy......Page 297
11.6.1 Programmed cell death and apoptosis......Page 299
11.7 Progress on manipulating flower senescence using GM......Page 300
11.8.1 Improved longevity......Page 301
11.8.3 Opportunities for ‘quality control’......Page 302
References......Page 303
Index......Page 315
Colour plates......Page 323