Flight Performance of Fixed and Rotary Wing Aircraft

Flight Performance of Fixed and Rotary Wing Aircraft......Page 4
Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 12
Acknowledgments......Page 16
List of Tables......Page 18
Nomenclature: organizations......Page 20
Nomenclature: acronyms......Page 21
Nomenclature: main symbols......Page 23
Nomenclature: Greek symbols......Page 26
Nomenclature: subscripts/superscripts......Page 27
Supplements to the text......Page 28
Part I Fixed-Wing Aircraft Performance......Page 30
1 Introduction......Page 32
1.1 Physical units used......Page 33
1.2 Performance parameters......Page 34
1.4 Certificate of Airworthiness......Page 36
1.5 Upgrading of aircraft performance......Page 37
1.6 Mission profiles......Page 38
1.6.1 Fighter Aircraft Requirements......Page 40
Problems......Page 42
2.1 General aircraft model......Page 44
2.2 Reference systems......Page 46
2.2.1 Angular Relationships......Page 48
2.3 Forces on the aircraft......Page 49
2.4 Moments of inertia......Page 50
2.5 Flight dynamics equations......Page 51
2.6 The International Standard Atmosphere......Page 52
2.7 Non-standard conditions......Page 57
Problems......Page 59
3.1 The aircraft's weight......Page 62
3.1.1 Wing Loading......Page 67
3.2 Definition of weights......Page 69
3.4 Weight management......Page 71
3.5 Range/payload diagram......Page 73
3.6 Direct Operating Costs......Page 75
Problems......Page 76
4.1 Aerodynamic forces......Page 78
4.2 Lift equation......Page 80
4.3 Vortex lift......Page 81
4.4 High-lift systems......Page 84
4.5 Drag equation......Page 86
4.5.1 Zero-Lift Drag......Page 88
4.6 Glide ratio......Page 90
4.7 Glide ratio at transonic and supersonic speed......Page 92
4.8 Practical estimation of the drag coefficient......Page 94
4.9 Compressibility effects......Page 95
4.10 Transonic drag rise......Page 96
4.11 Lift and transonic buffet......Page 97
4.12 Aero-thermodynamic heating......Page 98
4.13 Aerodynamic penetration and radius......Page 100
4.14 Aircraft vortex wakes......Page 101
4.15 Aerodynamics and performance......Page 103
Problems......Page 104
5.1 Gas turbine engines......Page 106
5.2 Internal combustion engines......Page 110
5.3 Engine flight envelopes......Page 112
5.4 Power and thrust definitions......Page 113
5.5 Generalized engine performance......Page 115
5.6 Fuel flow......Page 117
5.6.1 Aspects of Fuel Consumption......Page 121
5.7 Propulsive efficiency......Page 122
5.8 Thrust characteristics......Page 123
5.9 Propeller characteristics......Page 124
5.9.1 The Axial Momentum Theory......Page 130
5.9.2 The Blade Element Method......Page 134
Problems......Page 137
6.1 General definitions......Page 140
6.2 Aircraft speed range......Page 141
6.3 Definition of speeds......Page 142
6.5 Speed in level flight......Page 146
6.7 Absolute ceiling of propeller aircraft......Page 148
6.8 Optimal speeds for level flight......Page 150
6.9 General flight envelopes......Page 153
6.10 Limiting factors on flight envelopes......Page 155
6.11 Dash speed of supersonic aircraft......Page 157
6.13 Supersonic acceleration......Page 160
6.13.1 Acceleration at Constant Altitude......Page 161
6.13.2 Other Acceleration Profiles......Page 163
Problems......Page 164
7.1 Definition of terminal phases......Page 166
7.2 Conventional take-off......Page 168
7.3 Ground run of jet aircraft......Page 170
7.4 Solutions of the take-off equation......Page 172
7.5 Rotation and initial climb......Page 177
7.6 Take-off with one engine inoperative......Page 179
7.7 Calculation of the balanced field length......Page 180
7.8 Ground run of propeller aircraft......Page 182
7.9 WAT charts......Page 183
7.10 Missed take-off......Page 184
7.11 Final approach and landing......Page 185
7.12 Landing run......Page 186
Problems......Page 190
8.1 Governing equations......Page 194
8.2 Rate of climb......Page 195
8.3 Steady climb of propeller airplane......Page 196
8.3.1 Fastest Climb of Propeller Airplane......Page 197
8.3.2 Optimal Climb with Engine and Propeller Data......Page 198
8.3.3 Climb at Maximum Angle of Climb......Page 202
8.3.4 Climb Fuel of Propeller Airplane......Page 203
8.4 Climb of jet airplane......Page 204
8.4.1 C[sub(L)] for Optimal Steady Rate of Climb......Page 205
8.4.2 Practical Calculation of Climb Fuel......Page 207
8.5 Polar diagram for rate of climb......Page 208
8.6 Energy methods......Page 210
8.7 Specific excess power diagrams......Page 212
8.8 Differential excess power plots......Page 213
8.9.1 Minimum Time to Climb and Steepest Climb......Page 215
8.9.2 Minimum Fuel to Climb......Page 216
8.9.3 Other Climb Profiles......Page 217
8.10.1 Minimum Sinking Speed at Subsonic Speed......Page 219
8.10.2 Minimum Glide Angle Versus Minimum Sinking Speed......Page 220
8.11 General gliding flight......Page 223
8.12 Maximum glide range with energy method......Page 225
8.13 Minimum flight paths......Page 227
8.13.1 Minimum Time to Climb......Page 228
8.13.2 Solution of the Problem......Page 229
8.14 Additional research on aircraft climb......Page 230
Problems......Page 231
9.1 Importance of the cruise flight......Page 234
9.3 Point performance......Page 235
9.3.1 Specific Range at Subsonic Speed......Page 236
9.3.2 Specific Range at Supersonic Speed......Page 239
9.3.3 Specific Endurance, E[sub(s)]......Page 240
9.3.4 Figure of Merit, M (L/D)......Page 242
9.4 The Breguet range equation......Page 245
9.5.1 Cruise at Constant Altitude and Constant Mach Number......Page 247
9.5.2 Cruise at Constant Altitude and Lift Coefficient......Page 248
9.5.3 Cruise at Constant Mach Number and Constant C[sub(L)]......Page 249
9.5.5 Fuel Burn for Given Range......Page 251
9.6.1 Fuel for Taxi and Take-off......Page 253
9.6.3 Additional Fuel......Page 254
9.6.4 Reserve Fuel......Page 255
9.6.5 Mission Fuel of Subsonic Jet Transport......Page 256
9.7 Cruise with intermediate stop......Page 259
9.8 Aircraft selection......Page 261
9.9.1 Cruise at Constant Altitude and Mach Number......Page 262
9.9.2 Cruise at Constant Mach Number and C[sub(L)]......Page 264
9.10.1 Cruise at Constant Altitude and Speed......Page 266
9.11 Endurance......Page 267
9.13 Effect of the wind on cruise range......Page 268
9.15 Formation flight......Page 270
9.15.1 Range and Endurance in Formation Flight......Page 275
Problems......Page 277
10.1 Banked level turns......Page 280
10.2 Banked turn at constant thrust......Page 282
10.3 Power requirements......Page 284
10.4 Effect of weight on turn radius......Page 285
10.5 Maneuver envelope: n–V diagram......Page 286
10.6 Turn rates......Page 288
10.6.1 Corner Velocity......Page 290
10.7 Sustainable g-loads......Page 291
10.8 Unpowered turn......Page 293
10.9 Soaring flight......Page 294
10.10 Roll performance......Page 300
10.10.1 Effects of Mach number......Page 307
10.10.2 Dihedral Effect......Page 310
10.11 Aircraft control under thrust asymmetry......Page 312
10.12 Pull-up maneuver and the loop......Page 316
10.13 Zero-gravity atmospheric flight......Page 318
10.14 Flight path to a moving target......Page 324
Problems......Page 326
Part II Rotary-Wing Aircraft Performance......Page 328
11.1 Fundamentals......Page 330
11.2 Helicopter configurations......Page 331
11.3 Mission profiles......Page 334
11.4 Flight envelopes......Page 335
11.5 Definitions and reference systems......Page 336
11.5.1 Rotor Parameters......Page 338
11.6 Non-dimensional parameters......Page 340
11.7 Methods for performance calculations......Page 341
Problems......Page 342
12.1 Hover performance......Page 344
12.1.1 Profile Power......Page 347
12.1.2 Blade Element Analysis in Hover......Page 349
12.1.3 Power Loading......Page 351
12.2 Effect of blade twist......Page 352
12.3 Non-dimensional hover performance......Page 353
12.4 Vertical climb......Page 355
12.5 Ceiling performance......Page 357
12.6 Ground effect......Page 360
12.7 Vertical descent......Page 361
12.8 Hover endurance......Page 363
Problems......Page 364
13.1 Asymmetry of rotor loads......Page 366
13.2 Power requirements......Page 367
13.2.1 Induced Power......Page 368
13.2.2 Blade Profile Power......Page 372
13.2.3 Compressibility Effects......Page 373
13.2.4 Vehicle Drag......Page 375
13.2.5 Interference Effect of the Airframe......Page 379
13.2.6 Tail Rotor Power......Page 380
13.3 Rotor disk angle......Page 386
13.4 Calculation of forward flight power......Page 388
13.5 L/D of the helicopter......Page 390
13.6 Forward flight analysis......Page 391
13.6.1 Effect of Gross Weight......Page 392
13.6.3 Effect of Atmospheric Conditions......Page 394
13.7 Propulsive efficiency......Page 395
13.8 Climb performance......Page 396
13.9 Performance of tandem helicopters......Page 399
13.9.1 Assembling the Power Requirements......Page 401
13.9.2 Tandem Helicopter: Example of Calculation......Page 404
13.10 Single or tandem helicopter?......Page 406
Problems......Page 409
14.1 Limits on flight envelopes......Page 412
14.2 Kinetic energy of the rotor......Page 414
14.3 Autorotative index......Page 416
14.4.1 Steady Autorotative Performance......Page 418
14.4.2 Transient Autorotative Performance......Page 424
14.5 Height/velocity diagram......Page 427
14.6 The vortex ring state......Page 429
14.8 Turn performance......Page 433
14.9 Power required for turning......Page 435
14.9.1 Unrestricted Turn......Page 438
14.10 More on tail rotor performance......Page 439
Problems......Page 441
15.1 Specific air range......Page 442
15.2 Non-dimensional analysis of the SAR......Page 444
15.3 Endurance and specific endurance......Page 445
15.4 Speed for minimum power......Page 446
15.5 Speed for maximum range......Page 448
15.6 Fuel to climb......Page 449
15.7 Payload/range diagram......Page 451
15.8 Comparative payload fraction......Page 457
15.9 Mission analysis......Page 458
Problems......Page 459
Part III V/STOL and Noise Performance......Page 462
16.1 Hover characteristics......Page 464
16.2 Jet-induced lift......Page 466
16.2.1 Estimation of Jet-induced Fountain Lift and Suck-down......Page 468
16.3 Lift augmentation......Page 469
16.4 Calculation of short take-off......Page 470
16.5 Ski jump......Page 474
16.6 Convertiplanes or tilt rotors......Page 477
Problems......Page 478
17 Noise performance......Page 480
17.1 Definitions of sound and noise......Page 481
17.1.1 Doppler Effect......Page 482
17.2 Trends in noise reduction......Page 483
17.3 Airframe noise of fixed-wing aircraft......Page 485
17.3.2 Noise from Control Surfaces and Landing Gear......Page 487
17.3.3 Airframe Noise Reduction......Page 488
17.4 Engine noise......Page 489
17.5 Noise certification procedure......Page 490
17.6 Noise reduction from operations......Page 493
17.7 Minimum noise to climb......Page 496
17.8 Helicopter noise......Page 498
17.8.2 Impulsive Noise......Page 500
17.10 Noise certification of civil helicopters......Page 501
17.11 Sonic boom......Page 502
Problems......Page 507
A.1 Aircraft A: subsonic commercial jet......Page 508
A.2 Aircraft B: turboprop transport aircraft......Page 513
A.3 Aircraft C: supersonic jet fighter......Page 516
A.4 Aircraft D: General utility helicopter......Page 523
A.4.1 Main Rotor......Page 524
A.4.2 Engines......Page 525
A.4.3 Discussion of Data......Page 526
A.5.2 Aircraft Versions......Page 531
Appendix B. Noise data......Page 536
C.1 Assembling aircraft forces......Page 538
C.3 Optimal climb of fighter jet aircraft......Page 539
C.4 Optimal climb rate of turboprop......Page 542
C.5 Calculation of mission fuel......Page 544
C.6 Supersonic acceleration......Page 547
C.7 Asymmetric thrust control......Page 550
C.8 Hover power with blade element theory......Page 553
C.9 Forward flight power of helicopter......Page 555
Bibliography......Page 560
A......Page 582
B......Page 583
C......Page 584
E......Page 586
G......Page 587
K......Page 588
M......Page 589
P......Page 590
S......Page 591
T......Page 592
W......Page 593
Z......Page 594