Flavor: From Food to Behaviors, Wellbeing and Health

Flavor: From Food to Behaviors, Wellbeing and Health
1. Retention and release of aroma and taste compounds, influence on perception
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Aroma and taste compounds
		1.2.1 Physicochemical properties of aroma compounds
			1.2.1.1 Alcohols
			1.2.1.2 Carbonyl compounds
			1.2.1.3 Esters and lactones
			1.2.1.4 Hydrocarbons
			1.2.1.5 Sulfur and nitrogen compounds
			1.2.1.6 Heterocyclic compounds
		1.2.2 Physicochemical properties of taste compounds
			1.2.2.1 Mineral salts
			1.2.2.2 Organic acids
			1.2.2.3 Amino acids
			1.2.2.4 Nucleotides
			1.2.2.5 Mono- and disaccharides
			1.2.2.6 Terpenoids
			1.2.2.7 Peptides
			1.2.2.8 Proteins
			1.2.2.9 Other compounds
	1.3 Influence of food ingredients and food structure on the release of flavor compounds during the in-mouth process in relation ...
		1.3.1 Retention and release of aroma compounds
			1.3.1.1 Effect of food ingredients on aroma retention and release in simple model systems
				1.3.1.1.1 Lipids
				1.3.1.1.2 Proteins
				1.3.1.1.3 Carbohydrates
				1.3.1.1.4 Other effects
			1.3.1.2 Effect of food ingredients on aroma retention and release in real foods
			1.3.1.3 Effect of food structure and texture
		1.3.2 Retention and release of taste compounds
			1.3.2.1 Effect of food structure and texture
		1.3.3 Dynamic release and dynamic perception
			1.3.3.1 Dynamic aroma release and perception
			1.3.3.2 Dynamic release of taste compounds and perception
	1.4 Influence of oral physiology on in vivo release and perception
		1.4.1 Influence of oral physiology on in vivo aroma compound release and perception
		1.4.2 Influence of oral physiology on in vivo taste compound release and perception
	1.5 Simulation of oral processing using different devices
	1.6 Conclusion
	References
Copyright
2. Flavors mothers taught us in the womb and in milk
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Biological fluids that spontaneously attract neonates
		2.2.1 Colostrum and milk odors
		2.2.2 Amniotic fluid odor
	2.3 Behavioral evidence of “transnatal chemosensory continuity” and a working hypothesis
		2.3.1 Neonatal responsiveness
		2.3.2 Adult sensory evaluation
	2.4 Physiological bases for transnatal chemosensory continuity
	2.5 Chemical evidence for transnatal chemosensory continuity
		2.5.1 Odor-active compounds in AF
		2.5.2 Odor-active compounds in lacteal secretions
		2.5.3 From chemical analyses of AF and milk to behavioral assays with human newborns
	2.6 The transnatal olfactory continuity hypothesis and ensuing predictions
		2.6.1 Newborns should respond selectively to the odors of familiar AF or milk
		2.6.2 Transnatal chemosensory continuity should be maximal in the first postnatal days
		2.6.3 Transnatal chemosensory continuity cannot happen with artificial formulas
		2.6.4 Newborns should prefer conspecific milk over other learned odorants
		2.6.5 In utero odor exposure should lead to preference for the same odor ex utero
		2.6.6 In utero odor exposure should induce selective response to the same odor in milk
		2.6.7 Disruption of transnatal olfactory continuity affects neonatal behavior and physiology
		2.6.8 Reverse transnatal chemosensory continuity: fetal responsiveness to milk
		2.6.9 Transnatal chemoreceptive continuity in taste and oral chemesthesis
		2.6.10 Transnatal continuity in chemoreceptive aversion
	2.7 Transnatal chemosensory continuity: can it Be maladaptive?
	2.8 Closing comments
	Acknowledgments
	References
Preface
3. In-mouth metabolism of flavor compounds
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 In-mouth metabolism of flavor compounds
		3.2.1 Aldehydes
		3.2.2 Ketones
		3.2.3 Esters
		3.2.4 Thiols
	3.3 In-mouth generation of flavor compounds by biotransformation of their precursors
		3.3.1 Glycoconjugates
		3.3.2 Cysteine conjugates
	3.4 Oral metabolism and links with perception
	3.5 Modulation of flavor perception by the salivary antioxidant capacity
		3.5.1 Modulation of the aroma release
		3.5.2 Metallic taste perception
		3.5.3 Fat perception
	3.6 Conclusions
	References
List of contributors
4. Taste and trigeminal perception; from detection to integration
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Tasting molecules
		4.2.1 Bitter molecules
			4.2.1.1 Salts
			4.2.1.2 Amino acids, biogenic amines, peptides
			4.2.1.3 Flavonoids
			4.2.1.4 Other bitter compounds
		4.2.2 Sweet molecules
		4.2.3 Umami and kokumi compounds
		4.2.4 Salty compounds
		4.2.5 Sour molecules
	4.3 Trigeminal molecules
		4.3.1 Burning/warming/pungent sensation
		4.3.2 Cooling sensation
		4.3.3 Astringency
	4.4 Physiology of taste
	4.5 Integration of taste perception
	4.6 Taste-taste interaction
	4.7 Conclusion and future trends
	References
5. Odorant metabolizing enzymes in the peripheral olfactory process
	5.1 Introduction
		5.1.1 Xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes
		5.1.2 Odorant-metabolizing enzymes
		5.1.3 Peripheral olfactory physiology
	5.2 Olfactory expression and localization of OMEs
	5.3 Functional roles of OMEs in the olfactory process
		5.3.1 Methodologies and techniques
			5.3.1.1 Analysis of odorant metabolism
			5.3.1.2 Analysis of the impact of the modulation of odorant metabolism on the olfactory process
			5.3.1.3 Studies
				5.3.1.3.1 Odorant metabolism
				5.3.1.3.2 Odorant metabolism rate
				5.3.1.3.3 OMEs inhibition
				5.3.1.3.4 Addition or removal of OMEs
				5.3.1.3.5 Inversion of the metabolic reaction
				5.3.1.3.6 Adaptation to the metabolite
	5.4 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
6. Olfactory integration and odor perception
	List of abbreviations
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Peripheral odorant processing: everything begins in the nose
		6.2.1 Odorants binding
		6.2.2 Odorant coding
		6.2.3 Odorant signaling
		6.2.4 Perireceptor events
		6.2.5 Conclusion
	6.3 OB odorant processing
		6.3.1 Peripheral signal amplification: convergence
		6.3.2 Peripheral input mapping: sorting
	6.4 The piriform cortex: birth of the odorant percept
		6.4.1 Spatial disorganization and odor identity coding through neuron ensembles: elemental or synthetic coding mode?
		6.4.2 Discrimination against generalization: pattern separation or pattern completion?
		6.4.3 Piriform cortex: a pure associative cortex?
	6.5 Plasticity mechanisms at the peripheral and OB levels
		6.5.1 Peripheral olfactory-experienced induction or imprinting
		6.5.2 Plasticity in OB: tight interdependency between neurogenesis and centrifugal neuromodulator systems
	6.6 Genetic, gender, and aging variations in the olfactory system performances
		6.6.1 Genetic variations
		6.6.2 Gender variations
		6.6.3 Aging variations
	6.7 Olfactory function under neurohormonal controls (other than those involved in metabolic status)
		6.7.1 Stress
		6.7.2 Circadian rhythms
		6.7.3 Reproductive neuroendocrine status
			6.7.3.1 Influence of menstrual phase cycle
			6.7.3.2 Influence of pregnancy
	6.8 Conclusion
	References
7. Multimodal sensory interactions
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Multimodal interactions within the chemical senses
		7.2.1 Integration of aroma and taste at subthreshold level
		7.2.2 Interaction of aroma and taste at suprathreshold level
		7.2.3 Mechanisms underpinning aroma–taste interactions—perceptual integration versus physicochemical interactions
		7.2.4 Neurophysiological bases of flavor integration
		7.2.5 Influence of odor on taste perception
		7.2.6 Influence of taste on aroma perception
		7.2.7 Interactions between aroma, taste, and trigeminal sensations
	7.3 Interactions between aroma, taste and texture
		7.3.1 Mechanisms underpinning aroma–taste–texture interactions—perceptual integration versus physicochemical interactions
		7.3.2 Influence of texture on aroma and taste perception
		7.3.3 Influence of aroma and taste on texture perception
	7.4 Conclusion: multimodal interactions and food innovation
	References
	Further reading
8. Flavor: brain processing
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Flavor processing in the primate brain
		8.2.1 Taste processing
			8.2.1.1 Pathways
			8.2.1.2 The primary taste cortex
			8.2.1.3 The secondary taste cortex
			8.2.1.4 The pleasantness of the taste of food, sensory-specific satiety, and the effects of variety on food intake
		8.2.2 The representation of flavor: convergence of olfactory, taste, and visual inputs in the orbitofrontal cortex
		8.2.3 The texture of food, including fat texture
	8.3 Flavor processing in the human brain: functional neuroimaging
		8.3.1 Taste
		8.3.2 Odor
		8.3.3 Olfactory-taste convergence to represent flavor, and the influence of satiety on flavor representations
		8.3.4 Oral viscosity and fat texture
		8.3.5 The sight of food
		8.3.6 Top-down cognitive effects on taste, olfactory, and flavor processing
		8.3.7 Effects of selective attention to affective value versus intensity on representations of taste, olfactory, and flavor proce ...
		8.3.8 Individual differences in flavor processing in the brain
	8.4 Beyond the reward value of flavor to decision-making
	8.5 Synthesis
	Acknowledgments
	References
9. Holistic perception and memorization of flavor
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Holistic flavor perception
		9.2.1 The putative features of holistic processing
			9.2.1.1 The modality content dissociation for retronasal olfaction
			9.2.1.2 Psychological interactions between the flavor senses
			9.2.1.3 Access to parts
			9.2.1.4 Perceived location of taste and smell
			9.2.1.5 Perceived time course of the flavor senses
			9.2.1.6 Discussion
		9.2.2 How does holistic perception arise?
			9.2.2.1 Innate factors
			9.2.2.2 Cognitive factors
		9.2.3 Discussion
	9.3 Memorization of flavor
		9.3.1 Orthonasal smell and flavor—sensory aspects
		9.3.2 Orthonasal smell and flavor—affective aspects
		9.3.3 Flavor expectancies
	9.4 Conclusion
	9.5 General discussion
	References
10. Acquired tastes: on the learning of human food preferences
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Tasting to preference
	10.3 The Pavlovian love of food
		10.3.1 Flavor–nutrient learning
		10.3.2 Flavor–flavor learning
		10.3.3 Flavor–consequence learning
	10.4 Acquired food cravings
	10.5 Instrumental food preferences
	10.6 Social learning—“I\'ll have whatever she has”
	10.7 Conclusion and future trends
	References
11. Relationships between early flavor/texture exposure, and food acceptability and neophobia
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Early flavor exposure
		11.2.1 Flavor exposure in utero
		11.2.2 Flavor exposure in lacto
		11.2.3 Dietary exposure in complementary foods
			11.2.3.1 Flavor exposure in complementary foods
			11.2.3.2 Texture exposure in complementary foods
	11.3 Influence of early flavor and texture exposure on the development of food preferences
		11.3.1 Influence of in utero flavor exposure on the development of food preferences
		11.3.2 Influence of flavor exposure during the milk-feeding period on the development of food preferences
		11.3.3 Influence of dietary exposure at the onset of complementary feeding on the development of food preferences
			11.3.3.1 Flavor exposure at the onset of complementary feeding
				11.3.3.1.1 Flavor acceptance at the onset of complementary feeding
				11.3.3.1.2 Role of repeated exposures
				11.3.3.1.3 Role of the variety of foods offered
			11.3.3.2 Influence of texture exposure on development of food preference
				11.3.3.2.1 The role of feeding skills development on food acceptance
				11.3.3.2.2 Role of texture exposure on food acceptance
				11.3.3.2.3 Effect of introduction of food texture during complementary feeding on food acceptance: learnings from intervention studies
	11.4 Relationships between flavor exposure, texture exposure, food preferences and neophobia
	11.5 Conclusions
	References
12. Sensory influences on food choice and energy intake: recent developments and future directions
	12.1 Introduction: the role of sensory cues in food choice and intake
	12.2 Impact of food odor on food choice and intake
		12.2.1 Ambient odors perceived orthonasally; effect on appetite, choice, and intake
		12.2.2 Odor perception and body weight
	12.3 Impact of taste on food choice and intake
		12.3.1 Taste-nutrient relationships in diets across the world
		12.3.2 Bitterness
		12.3.3 Sourness
		12.3.4 Saltiness
		12.3.5 Umami
		12.3.6 Sweetness
		12.3.7 Fat sensation
	12.4 Impact of texture on eating rate and food intake
		12.4.1 Texture oral processing and the food intake
		12.4.2 The origins of differences in eating rate and association with energy intake and obesity
		12.4.3 Food texture, eating rate, and energy intake
	12.5 Future directions: application of sensory approaches to public health
	References
13. Familiarity, monotony or variety: the role of flavor complexity in food intake
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Perceived complexity: definition and measurement
	13.3 Familiarity and variety as concepts
	13.4 Theories predicting the development of product appreciation over time
	13.5 Learning experience, culture, and the formation and development of optimal complexity of the consumer with experience and age
	13.6 Practical implications for product development and marketing
	13.7 Conclusion
	References
14. The metabolic status and olfactory function
	14.1 How is the olfactory function influenced metabolic-related hormones and peptides and of nutriments: neuroanatomical evidence
		14.1.1 Anatomical distribution of receptors to metabolic-related hormones and peptides along the olfactory pathways
			14.1.1.1 The olfactory mucosa
			14.1.1.2 The olfactory bulb
		14.1.2 Local synthesis of metabolic-related hormones/peptides in olfactory tissues
		14.1.3 The olfactory system, a target for circulating nutriments
	14.2 Prandial state and olfactory function
		14.2.1 In humans
		14.2.2 In animals
	14.3 Metabolic disorders linked, or not, to eating disorders and olfactory function
		14.3.1 Obesity
			14.3.1.1 In humans
		14.3.2 In animals
		14.3.3 Diabetes
		14.3.4 Anorexia
		14.3.5 Maternal metabolic status
	14.4 Conclusion
	References
15. Taste disorders in disease
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Taste disorders
		15.2.1 Abnormal taste sensation or taste perception?
		15.2.2 Many diseases induce taste abnormalities
		15.2.3 Many drugs can lead to taste disorders
		15.2.4 Many mechanisms lead to taste disorders
	15.3 Taste disorders in metabolic pathologies
		15.3.1 Taste disorders in obesity
			15.3.1.1 Taste sensitivity in obese patients
			15.3.1.2 Taste sensitivity after bariatric surgery
		15.3.2 Taste disorders in diabetes
		15.3.3 Taste disorders in metabolic syndrome
			15.3.3.1 Future direction
	15.4 Taste disorders in neurological diseases
		15.4.1 Peripheral disorders
		15.4.2 Central disorders
	15.5 Taste disorders in cancer
		15.5.1 Main mechanisms
		15.5.2 Savor-specific alterations
		15.5.3 Changes in hedonic sensations and aversion
		15.5.4 Consequences on quality of life
		15.5.5 Care
	15.6 Taste disorders in COVID-19 infection
	15.7 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
16. Olfactory disorders and consequences∗
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Classification of olfactory loss
	16.3 Causes of olfactory disorders
	16.4 Patient examination
	16.5 Treatment of smell disorders
	16.6 Quality of life in patients with olfactory loss
	16.7 Summary
	References
17. Relationship between fermented food, oral microbiota, and taste perception
	17.1 Oral microbiota
		17.1.1 Overview of oral microbiota
		17.1.2 Geographical differences in the oral microbiota
		17.1.3 Oral microbiota changes along life
		17.1.4 Establishment of dysbiosis, pathologies, and probiotic treatments
	17.2 Fermented foods
		17.2.1 Different types of fermentation
		17.2.2 Role of fermentation in the production of taste compounds
	17.3 Influence of oral microbiota on taste perception
	17.4 Conclusion
	References
Index
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